“…In schema research, participants are often shown object in a congruent or incongruent context (Quent et al, 2022;Van Kesteren et al, 2013), where incongruent pairs are thought to generate prediction errors. Although some studies have shown better memory for schema-incongruent pairs (e.g., Quent et al, 2022), many have found the opposite result (e.g., Höltje & Mecklinger, 2022;Ortiz-Tudela et al, 2021;Van Kesteren et al, 2013). In addition, it is worth noting that both reinforcement learning and schema research tend to use recognition or forced-choice memory tests (e.g., Greve et al, 2017Greve et al, , 2019, and research has shown better memory for unexpected items during recognition, but not recall (Lew & Howe, 2017).…”