Not just the sum of its parts: geographic variation and non-additive effects of pyrazines in the chemical defence of an aposematic moth

Abstract

Chemical defences often vary within and between populations both in quantity and quality, which is puzzling if prey survival is dependent on the strength of the defence. We investigated the within- and between-population variability in chemical defence of the wood tiger moth (Arctia plantaginis). The major components of its defences, SBMP (2secbutyl3methoxypyrazine) and IBMP (2isobutyl3methoxypyrazine) are volatiles that deter bird attacks. We expected the variation to reflect populations predation pressures and early-life conditions. To understand the role of the methoxypyrazines, we experimentally manipulated synthetic SBMP and IBMP and tested the birds reactions. We found a considerable variation in methoxypyrazine amounts and composition, both from wild-caught and laboratory-raised male moths. In agreement with the cost of defence hypothesis, the moths raised in the laboratory had a higher amount of pyrazines. We found that SBMP is more effective at higher concentrations and that IBMP is more effective only in combination with SBMP and at lower concentrations. Our results fit findings from the wild: the amount of SBMP was higher in the populations with higher predation pressure. Altogether, this suggests that, regarding pyrazine concentration, more is not always better, and highlights the importance of testing the efficacy of chemical defence and its components with relevant predators, rather than relying only on results from chemical analyses