Normative Data of the Trail Making Test Among Urban Community-Dwelling Older Adults in Japan

Suzuki, Hiroyuki; Sakuma, Naoko; Kobayashi, Momoko; Ogawa, Susumu; Inagaki, Hiroki; Edahiro, Ayako; Ura, Chiaki; Sugiyama, M.; Miyamae, Fumiko; Watanabe, Yutaka; Shinkai, Shoji; Awata, Shuichi

doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.832158

Cited by 10 publications

(17 citation statements)

References 32 publications

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“…The TMT AB test is a widely used cognitive task for assessing visuospatial lower and higher cognitive function in older adults 29. It consists of two parts, TMT A and TMT B,9 where the TMT A test measures lower cognitive functions such as attention and processing speed,29 that are required for, for example, visual searching 9. TMT B test measures task-switching ability and assesses more executive function and higher cognitive functionality,29 requiring working memory and cognitive flexibility 9.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…It consists of two parts, TMT A and TMT B,9 where the TMT A test measures lower cognitive functions such as attention and processing speed,29 that are required for, for example, visual searching 9. TMT B test measures task-switching ability and assesses more executive function and higher cognitive functionality,29 requiring working memory and cognitive flexibility 9. In TMT A, participants use a pencil to connect randomly arranged numbers (1–25) in ascending order, while in TMT B, they were required to connect numbered (1–13) and lettered (A–M) circles, beginning with the number one and alternating between letters and numbers in ascending order as quickly as possible 9 29 30.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Recent meta-analyses have indicated that an acute period (<60 min) moderate-intensity (40%–60% VO2max) aerobic exercise (AE) appears to have greater impact on the executive function of older adults than on younger adults regarding time-dependent tests,7 and it can also improve task-shifting performance in healthy adults,8 as measured by the Trail Making Test (TMT). The TMT is a commonly used evaluation of cognitive function for older adults that is sensitive to dementia-related cognitive decline 9. Although AE is a promising non-pharmaceutical method for preventing cognitive decline, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood 10.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Cognitive and biomarker responses in healthy older adults to a 18-hole golf round and different walking types: a randomised cross-over study

Kettinen,

Tikkanen,

Hiltunen

et al. 2023

BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med

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IntroductionThe global burden of age-related cognitive decline is increasing, with the number of people aged 60 and over expected to double by 2050. This study compares the acute effects of age-appropriate cognitively demanding aerobic exercises involving walking, on cognitive functions and exerkine responses such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and cathepsin B (CTSB) in older, healthy adults.Methods/designHealthy older golfers (n=25, 16 male and 9 female, 69±4 years) were enrolled in a 5-day randomised cross-over study and completed three different exercise trials (18-hole golf round, 6 km Nordic walking, 6 km walking) in a real-life environment, in random order and at a self-selected pace. Differences in cognition (the Trail-Making Test (TMT) AB) and exerkines (BDNF and CTSB) were analysed within groups using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test and between groups using the Kruskal-Wallis test.ResultsAll exercise types resulted in a significant decrease in the TMT A-test (p<0.05; golf: −4.43±1.5 s, Nordic walking: −4.63±1.6 s, walking: −6.75±2.26 s), where Nordic walking and walking demonstrated a decrease in the TMT B-test (p<0.05; Nordic walking: −9.62±7.2 s, walking: −7.55±3.2 s). In addition, all exercise types produced significant decreases in the TMT AB test scores (p<0.05), and Nordic walking (p=0.035) showed decreases in the TMTB-TMTA-test. There were no immediate postexercise changes in the levels of BDNF or CTSB.ConclusionAcute bouts of golf, Nordic walking and walking improved cognitive functions irrespective of exerkines in healthy older adults. In addition, Nordic walking and walking in general enhanced executive functions. No significant effects were seen on the levels of BDNF and CTSB.Trial registration numberISRCTN10007294.

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Cognitive and biomarker responses in healthy older adults to a 18-hole golf round and different walking types: a randomised cross-over study

Kettinen,

Tikkanen,

Hiltunen

et al. 2023

BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…These tasks were required to be applied to the participants through validated instruments for adults. Some examples of tasks to measure working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility are the N-back task [ 53 ], Stroop task [ 54 ] and Trail Making Test—Part B [ 55 ], respectively. Indirect or global measures of executive functions were excluded, since they cannot be compared with the cognitive processes included.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effects of Physical Exercise on Executive Function in Adults with Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Contreras-Osorio

Ramírez‐Campillo

Cerda-Vega

et al. 2022

IJERPH

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Executive function is among the most affected cognitive dimensions in depression. Physical exercise may improve executive function (e.g., working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility), although this is without consensus on adults with depression. Through this systematic review, we aim to elucidate the effects of physical exercise programs on executive functions in adults with depression. The literature search was performed in four relevant electronic databases, combining keywords and medical subject headings, from inception until September 2022. Controlled interventions, involving adults with depression, and reporting working memory, inhibition, and/or cognitive flexibility pre-post-intervention data, were considered includable. Results from meta-analyses included effect size (ES, i.e., Hedges’ g) values reported with 95% confidence intervals (95%CIs), with p set at ≤0.05. Seven studies were included, including 202 men and 457 women (age: 21.0–51.2 years; mild–moderate depression). For working memory, a small favoring effect was observed in the experimental groups compared with controls (ES = 0.33, 95%CI = 0.04–0.61; p = 0.026; I2 = 64.9%). For inhibition, physical exercise had a small favoring non-significant effect compared with controls (ES = 0.28, 95%CI = −0.17–0.74; p = 0.222; I2 = 72.4%). Compared with the control group, physical exercise had a trivial effect on cognitive flexibility (ES = 0.09, 95%CI = −0.21–0.39; p = 0.554; I2 = 68.4%). In conclusion, physical exercise interventions may improve working memory behavioral measures in adults with mild-to-moderate depression when compared with active and passive control conditions. However, the reduced number of available high-quality studies precludes more lucid conclusions.

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“…These tasks must be directly applied to the participants through validated instruments for the respective population. Some examples of tasks that the studies include are the N-back task [ 70 ] to evaluate working memory, Stroop task [ 71 ] to assess inhibition, and the Trail Making Test—Part B [ 72 ] to measure cognitive flexibility.…”

Section: Materials and Analysismentioning

confidence: 99%

Effects of Sport-Based Interventions on Executive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocol

et al. 2022

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Background: Moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise programs have proven to exert positive effects on the cognitive performance of older people. However, the specific effects sport-based exercise programs have on cognitive performance, upon executive functions, remain unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to clarify the effects of sport-based exercise programs on executive functions in older adults, through a systematic review protocol of the scientific literature, with a meta-analysis. Methods: The search was performed in the Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and EBSCO electronic databases by combining keywords and different medical subject headings (MeSH) to identify and evaluate the relevant studies from inception up until June 2022. This study considers longitudinal studies with at least one experimental group and pre- and post-intervention measurements involving healthy older adults of 60 years of age or older. Studies have to consider one or more measures of executive function, including dimensions of working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility, in order to meet the eligibility criteria for inclusion in this report. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used for methodological quality assessment studies. The DerSimonian and Laird random-effects model was used to compute the meta-analyses and report effect sizes (ES, i.e., Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs), and a statistical significance set at p ≤ 0.05. The ES values were calculated for executive function globally and for each dimension of executive function (e.g., working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility) in the experimental and control/comparator groups using the mean and standard deviation values before and after the intervention period. Conclusions: Our systematic review aims to clarify the effects of sport-based exercise programs on executive functions in older adults. The results may help practitioners and stakeholders to provide better evidence-based decisions regarding sport-based exercise program implementation for older adults, and to help them to optimize cognitive functions during the aging process. Ethical permission is not required for this study. Systematic review registration: this systematic review is registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; registration number: CRD42022284788).

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Normative Data of the Trail Making Test Among Urban Community-Dwelling Older Adults in Japan

Cited by 10 publications

References 32 publications

Cognitive and biomarker responses in healthy older adults to a 18-hole golf round and different walking types: a randomised cross-over study

Cognitive and biomarker responses in healthy older adults to a 18-hole golf round and different walking types: a randomised cross-over study

Effects of Physical Exercise on Executive Function in Adults with Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Effects of Sport-Based Interventions on Executive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocol

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