Nonergodicity and Simpson’s paradox in neurocognitive dynamics of cognitive control

Abstract

Nonergodicity and Simpson’s paradox pose significant and underappreciated challenges for neuroscience. Using stop signal task data from over 4,000 children and a Bayesian computational model of cognitive dynamics, we investigated brain-behavior relationships underlying inhibitory control at both between-subjects and within-subjects levels. Strikingly, between-subjects associations of inhibitory control activations with stop signal reaction times, probabilities of proactivity, and proactive delays were reversed within subjects, revealing the nonergodic nature of these processes. Nonergodicity was observed throughout the brain but was most pronounced in the salience network. Furthermore, within-subjects analysis revealed dissociated brain representations of reactive and proactive processing, and distinct brain-behavior associations for subjects who adaptively and who maladaptively regulated inhibitory control. This work advances our knowledge of the dynamic neural mechanisms of inhibitory control during a critical developmental period and has implications for personalized interventions in cognitive disorders. Embracing nonergodicity is crucial for understanding brain-behavior relationships and developing effective interventions.