Non Edible Oils: Raw Materials for Sustainable Biodiesel

Ultrasonic free fatty acids esterification in tobacco and canola oil

“…Among the sources of biomass-derived fuels [1][2][3][4], one is represented by the raw oils to produce biodiesel (BD). BD is a biofuel that is defined as fatty acid methyl ester derived from greases of vegetable, animal or wastes [5][6][7].…”

“…High FFA and water concentrations are likely for raw or used oils. Removing FFA before the transesterification is a solution to avoid saponification during the BD production [4,7,[10][11][12][13][14].…”

“…Esterification is preferred over other methods to remove FFA such as distillation or adding alkaline catalyst in excess [6,7], since it produces methyl esters (ME), i.e. BD already at this stage.…”

Ultrasonic enhancement of the acidity, surface area and free fatty acids esterification catalytic activity of sulphated ZrO 2 –TiO 2 systems

“…For liquid phase reactions, the latter approach is preferred as it brings benefits such as the easier separation of the catalyst from the products, thus facilitating catalyst recovery and re-use. Much attention has been focused on the use of ion exchange acid resins as catalysts for the FFA esterification reaction [5,[7][8][9][10]. A significant outcome of these studies lies in the correlation between the catalytic activity of the tested catalysts with the acidity present on the catalyst outer surface regardless of the nature of adopted catalysts [10].…”

“…In recent years a great deal of attention has been focused on the study of the pre-esterification as a method to lower the acidity of the raw oils to be used for biodiesel production [5,[7][8][9][10]. The esterification reaction of FFA also allows to improve the final yield in biodiesel as the obtained products are FAME, i.e.…”