No necessary tradeoff: Context, life course, and social networks in the identity formation of second-generation Nigerians in the USA

Abstract

Based on 25 semi-structured interviews, this article examines the racial, ethnic and national identities of second-generation Nigerian immigrants from the San Francisco Bay Area. I elaborate on the segmented-assimilation literature that considers economic circumstances to be a key determinant in identity formation. I show that participants form highly fluid identities throughout the life cycle, pinpointing factors that often get overlooked or de-emphasized in the second-generation incorporation literature such as youth co-ethnic community access, the college integrative experience and transnational social connections, particularly in adulthood. This article extends the black immigration literature that contends that ethnic identity is primarily used as a means of distancing from ‘downwardly mobile’ African-Americans. My findings highlight that respondents embrace a black racial identity that is neither oppositional nor associated with a downward trajectory, lending empirical support for the ‘minority cultures of mobility’ thesis that the minority middle classes share a culture of upward mobility.

Challenging Popularized Narratives of Immigrant Youth From West Africa: Examining Social Processes of Navigating Identities and Engaging Civically

“…Tremendous growth of Black immigrants from African countries to the United States emerged in part with federal immigration policies such as the Hart-Celler Immigration Act of 1965, which abolished national quotas; made migration legal from Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean; and increased educational opportunities in the United States (Balogun, 2011). From 2001 to 2010, more than 860,000 immigrants from African countries were granted lawful permanent residence (McCabe, 2011).…”

“…In examining immigrant youth from West African countries navigating identities, we drew on 26 articles to examine how immigrant youth and young adults from West Africa countries construct and negotiate complex, multilayered identities within and across varied social and educational contexts such as families, peers, and schools (Alidou, 2000; Awokoya, 2012; Balogun, 2011; Clark, 2008; Dlamini & Anucha, 2009; Harushimana & Awokoya, 2011; Imoagene, 2015; Knight, 2011, 2013; Knight & Watson, 2014; Kumi-Yeboah & Smith, 2016; Masinda et al, 2014; McIntosh Allen, Jackson, & Knight, 2012; Mensah & Williams, 2015; Njue & Retish, 2010; Ogundipe, 2011; Okpalaoka, 2011; Okpalaoka & Dillard, 2012; Park, 2013; Roubeni, De Haene, Keatley, Shah, & Rasmussen, 2015; Somé-Guiébré, 2016; Stebleton, 2012; Takyi, 2002; Thomas, 2012; Traoré, 2004, 2008). Articles primarily included research on first- and second-generation Nigerians, as Nigeria is the largest sender of immigrants from West African countries, followed by Ghana (Okpalaoka & Dillard, 2012; Zong & Batalova, 2014).…”

Cross-Cultural Educational Experiences and Academic Achievement of Ghanaian Immigrant Youth in Urban Public Schools

“…As demonstrated, teachers’ perceptions affirmed the influence of negative depictions concerning Africa that pervaded the American context in which the Ghanaian students functioned. According to Balogun (2011), African immigrant learners experience stereotypes in school, because of the perpetuated negative notions and images of the continent of Africa. The above statement indicates the experiences of racism and discrimination among Black African immigrant youth as part of their journey to adjust and adapt to school environment in the United States.…”

“…However, less is known about a subgroup of Black African immigrant students particularly, Ghanaian immigrant youth with regard to the factors that promote cross-cultural educational experiences and/or challenges as it relates to their academic achievement. In the midst of the current social, economic, and political debates over the influence of immigration in U.S. schools (Peguero & Bondy, 2011) and given the limited research base directed to the needs of this population (Rong & Preissle, 2009), we propose to utilize this study to challenge pervading assumptions about Black immigrant population that seem to be steeped in essentialization by specifically examining cross-cultural factors that facilitate academic achievement and/or challenges of one particular African-born student population, Ghanaian immigrant youth (Balogun, 2011; Okpalaoka, 2011; Rong & Preissle, 2009). Findings from this study will help teachers and educators working with Black African immigrants, notably Ghanaian immigrant students, identify and understand how to leverage pedagogical tools in ways that best attend to their needs from academic, social, and cultural perspectives (Davies, 2008; Kent, 2007; Rong & Preissle, 2009; Roubeni et al, 2015).…”

Stories of Transnationalism: nǐ kàn wǒ, wǒ kàn nǐ (你看我, 我看你)

“…Examples of this can be seen in classical migration studies and topics of cultural homogenisation through the assimilationist model. Balogun (2011) uses the theoretical framework of the segmented assimilation paradigm to understand the processes of identity formation among second-generation Nigerians in the United States. Segmented assimilation "proposes congruence between economic, structural and identificational forms of incorporation in which identity is formed in part through the second generation's mobility prospects" (Balogun 2011, 459).…”