Nitric oxide-dependent biodegradation of graphene oxide reduces inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract

Abstract

Graphene oxide (GO) undergoes nitric oxide (NO)-dependent degradation leading to reduced infiltration of polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) in the GI tract.

Biodegradation of graphdiyne oxide in classically activated (M1) macrophages modulates cytokine production

“…We recently documented iNOS-dependent biodegradation of GO in a zebrafish model. 21 Biodegradation of GDYO has not been shown previously. However, in light of the fact that M1, but not M2 macrophages, expressed iNOS and were capable of producing NO, we reasoned that M1 and M2 macrophages might differ in their capacity to digest GDYO.…”

“…NO production in macrophages was determined by the DAF-FM-DA assay (Sigma-Aldrich, Stockholm) as described previously. 21 N-Omega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride (L-NAME, 15 mM; Sigma-Aldrich) was used to inhibit NO production. Briefly, cells were washed with PBS at 24 h, 48 h and 72 h post-addition of polarization stimuli and incubated with DAF-FM-DA (10 µM) for 60 min.…”

“…GDYO (50 µg) suspended in PBS was incubated with the peroxynitrite donor, 3-morpholinosydnonimine hydrochloride (SIN-1, Sigma-Aldrich) as described previously. 21 SIN-1 was added 5 times per day for 5 days and the final concentration was 300 µM. After 5 days, the samples were collected and stored at −20°C for further analysis.…”

“…17,18 In addition to peroxidase-driven degradation, we and others have documented peroxynitrite-dependent biodegradation of CNTs 19,20 as well as GO. 21 The generation of peroxynitrite (ONOO − ) relies on nitric oxide (NO) catalyzed by inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and superoxide (O 2 − ) generated by the NADPH oxidase. Importantly, such oxidative pathways are predominantly found in classically activated M1 macrophages tasked with the clearance of microorganisms.…”

Does black phosphorus hold potential to overcome graphene oxide? A comparative review of their promising application for cancer therapy

“…59,61 Furthermore, although peroxidases are the main process of biodegradation of carbon nanomaterials, other biodegradation pathways have been recently reported. 62 Fadeel et al carefully reviewed the role of the physicochemical properties, including the number of layers, the lateral dimension, and the C/O ratio, for the safety of graphene-based material in humans and the environment. 63 In the specific case of GO, the functional groups that are present on its surface allow a better dispersibility of the nanomaterial, which is positive for a faster degradation rate.…”