New saxitoxin analogues in the marine environment: developments in toxin chemistry, detection and biotransformation during the 2000s

Abstract

Scientific study of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PSTs) started in the early XXth century.

Characterization of Benzoyl Saxitoxin Analogs from the Toxigenic Marine Dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum by Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Ion-Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

“…The GC3 analog has been previously reported by LC-FLD analysis of fractions obtained with MeOH concentrations <100% [16,[19][20][21][22]28], but most of this toxin is probably lost during the clean-up stage in the 100% MeOH rinse after elution through the C-18 solid-phase extraction cartridges.…”

“…[dcGTXs], and N-sulfocarbamoyl B and C toxins, versus so-called "hydrophobic" (e.g., benzoyl or GC) analogs [16,[19][20][21][22] (Figure 1). Identification of benzoyl analogs has been hampered mainly by the lack of analytical standards [20,21,23], but probable structures for some analogs have been proposed based upon mass spectrometric analysis [20].…”

Gymnodinium catenatum Graham isolated from the Portuguese coast: Toxin content and genetic characterization

“…A fourth group of PSTs with the carbamate side chains substituted with a hydroxybenzoate moiety, were identified in strains of G. catenatum isolated from Australian waters and were named GC1-3 (Negri et al, 2003). Later the GC toxins were identified in strains of G. catenatum isolated worldwide but their toxicity is still not well known (Negri et al, 2007;Vale, 2008Vale, , 2010Vale, , 2011Bustillos-Guzmá n et al, 2011;Durá n-Riveroll et al, 2013).…”

Verification and quantification of saxitoxin from algal samples using fast and validated hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method

“…After two decades it was discovered to be a metabolic product of marine dinoflagellates [5] and few years' later freshwater cyanobacteria [6]. This toxin accumulates in filter-feeding bivalve molluscs like mussels, oysters and scallops and therefore can end up to human or animal consumption.…”