New possible biomarkers for diagnosis of infections and diagnostic distinction between bacterial and viral infections in children

Abstract

Detailed information about patients with infections is required to ensure appropriate choice of treatment. Although white blood cell (WBC) counts, and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels are useful diagnostic indicators of infections, more rapid and easily assayed indicator(s) could improve diagnosis. Moreover, it is of pivotal importance to distinguish bacteria or viruses as causative pathogens. Overall, TLR2 and TLR4 expression levels in neutrophils derived from individuals (n = 118) with bacterial (n = 37) and viral (n = 34) infections were higher than those in control samples (n = 47). Significant higher levels of TNF-α in patients with both types of the infection were observed, and those of IL-4, IL-8, IL-10, and IL-12 also were observed in the present study. Levels of IL-2, IL-8, and IL-10 on day 1 post-viral infection were significantly higher than those on day 1 post-bacterial infection. Therefore, there is a possibility that IL-4, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12 and TNF-α might be biomarkers for infections, in addition to WBC counts and CRP levels, and that IL-2, IL-8 or IL-10 are potentially able to distinguish between bacterial and viral infections.

The Role of Aberrations in the Immune-inflammatory Reflex System (IRS) and the Compensatory Immune-regulatory Reflex System (CIRS) in Different Phenotypes of Schizophrenia: The IRS-CIRS Theory of Schizophrenia

“…In fact, the cytokine biosignature in schizophrenia and FEP showing increased levels of TNF-α, IL-12, IL-4, IL-10 and IL-8 suggests that monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells (DSs) are induced by infectious (bacterial or viral) agents (although complement factors cannot be ruled out). Moreover, the strong induction of M1 cytokines, including GM-CS and IL-6, and the lack of an IL-2 response in FEP suggests that a bacterial component could be the trigger [149] and that macrophages and DCs subsequently activate Th-1 cells followed by an immuneregulatory response involving Th-2 and Treg cells [149,150].…”

Using of TLR2 and TLR4 as Biomarker of Sepsis Severity Detection

“…An interesting report concerning the response of the innate immune system to infection and the role of cytokines in relation to disease severity indicated that serum levels of cytokines were considerably higher in more severe than in mild infections or healthy controls. In general, severe infections develop from mild infections (which comprise the majority of out patient cases) [23]. In sepsis, a pro-inflammatory phase (SIRS) is provoked to remove the pathogen.…”

Activation of the Immune-Inflammatory Response System and the Compensatory Immune-Regulatory Reflex System in Antipsychotic Naive First Episode Psychosis

“…The cytokine profile observed here may suggest that monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs), and Th-1 cells might be induced by bacterial or viral infections thereby producing a broad array of cytokines [25,26]. Increases in IL-12, TNF-α, IL-8, IL-4 and IL-10, as detected here in FEP patients, may well indicate the presence of an infection [26]. Moreover, the immune cell profile observed in FEP patients may indicate induction of DCs and macrophages, which subsequently activate Th-1 cells [27].…”

“…Moreover, the immune cell profile observed in FEP patients may indicate induction of DCs and macrophages, which subsequently activate Th-1 cells [27]. The lack of an IL-2 response coupled with strongly induced M1 cytokines in FEP may suggest that perhaps a bacterial component is more prominent than a viral component [26]. Nevertheless, other etiological factors cannot be ruled out, including complement activation, although increased complement levels in schizophrenia are probably a consequence of an acute phase response [22].…”