Neuropsychological functioning in health and mood disorder: Modulation by glucocorticoids and their receptors

Racial Discrimination, Mood Disorders, and Cardiovascular Disease Among Black Americans

“…People with mood disorders are characterized by dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, elevated baseline immune activation, and heightened inflammatory response, which may aid in the development of hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and atherosclerosis (17, 18, 20–24). Prior studies have found strong correlations between depression and inflammatory biomarkers such as interleukin-1 and −6, tumor necrosis factor, and C-reactive protein, all clinically validated risk markers for atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular occlusion (19, 22, 25–29).…”

Early life stress and later health outcomes—findings from the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study

“…The underlying mechanisms explaining the long-term effects of ELS have been the topic of several studies, but no definite proof has been found. Several studies suggest that changes in the HPA-axis could explain the association between ELS and later health outcomes (Gallagher et al, 2009). Studies in rats have shown that those separated from their mothers during childhood exhibit a 2-to 3-fold greater stress response of the HPA axis as adults Ellis et al, 2005;Gunnar and Quevedo, 2007;Gunnar et al, 2006;Levine, 2005;Luecken, 1998).…”

Neuropsychology of Neuroendocrine Dysregulation after Traumatic Brain Injury

“…Sex steroids, in particular 17β-estradiol, play an important role in sexual differentiation of the brain and expression of sex-specific cognitive and affective behaviors [19]; they also enhance cognition, in particular memory [20]. Glucocorticoids (GC, e.g., cortisol), are released from the adrenal glands as part of the adaptive response to stress; as their name indicates, their main function is to regulate glucose and lipid metabolism [21]. In addition, glucocorticoids are potent suppressors of the immune response.…”

“…Persistently high GC levels, such as those found under conditions of chronic stress, disrupt homeostasis (e.g., cardiovascular, metabolic) and may lead to the development of psychopathological symptoms such as depression [22]. In addition, GC influences cognition (e.g., attention, and visual and verbal memory) in a U-shaped dose-related manner [21,23]. It is, thus, not surprising that many subjects with major depression present with cognitive impairments.…”