Neuronal toll-like receptors and neuro-immunity in Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and stroke

Rietdijk, Carmen D.; Wezel, Richard van; Garssen, Johan; Kraneveld, Aletta D.

doi:10.20517/2347-8659.2015.28

Cited by 55 publications

(50 citation statements)

References 103 publications

(226 reference statements)

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“…Moreover, PRV replication was limited in the footpad of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) knockout (KO) mice with no viral replication detected in DRG neurons. TLRs are expressed in nociceptive neurons and play a crucial role in neuroinflammation [129,130]. In particular, TLR2 is responsible for the activation of spinal cord glial cell after nerve injury and subsequent pain hypersensitivity [131].…”

Section: The Immune Mechanisms Of Prv-induced Neuropathic Itchmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Neuropathic Itch Caused by Pseudorabies Virus

Laval

Enquist

2020

Pathogens

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Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is an alphaherpesvirus related to varicella-zoster virus (VZV) and herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1). PRV is the causative agent of Aujeskzy’s disease in swine. PRV infects mucosal epithelium and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) of its host where it can establish a quiescent, latent infection. While the natural host of PRV is the swine, a broad spectrum of mammals, including rodents, cats, dogs, and cattle can be infected. Since the nineteenth century, PRV infection is known to cause a severe acute neuropathy, the so called “mad itch” in non-natural hosts, but surprisingly not in swine. In the past, most scientific efforts have been directed to eradicating PRV from pig farms by the use of effective marker vaccines, but little attention has been given to the processes leading to the mad itch. The main objective of this review is to provide state-of-the-art information on the mechanisms governing PRV-induced neuropathic itch in non-natural hosts. We highlight similarities and key differences in the pathogenesis of PRV infections between non-natural hosts and pigs that might explain their distinctive clinical outcomes. Current knowledge on the neurobiology and possible explanations for the unstoppable itch experienced by PRV-infected animals is also reviewed. We summarize recent findings concerning PRV-induced neuroinflammatory responses in mice and address the relevance of this animal model to study other alphaherpesvirus-induced neuropathies, such as those observed for VZV infection.

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Section: The Immune Mechanisms Of Prv-induced Neuropathic Itchmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Neuropathic Itch Caused by Pseudorabies Virus

Laval

Enquist

2020

Pathogens

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“…[38] These two cells are key players in the multicellular response to central nervous system (CNS) trauma and disease, including the immune reactions. [39,40] TLRs, the well-defined pattern recognition receptors of the immune system, [41] can initiate an immune response upon exposure to harmful microorganisms [42] and play a key role in macrophage activation. Neuronal TLR's play a central role in connecting the interactions between the immune system and the nervous system.…”

Section: Neuroinflammationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Neuronal TLR's play a central role in connecting the interactions between the immune system and the nervous system. [42] Interleukin's act as essential innate immune modulators and conduct an array of biological processes. [43] The neuroinflammation process is decided by the scene, duration and course of the neurological insult.…”

Section: Neuroinflammationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Role of neuroinflammation in ischemic stroke

Li¹,

Pan²,

Tang³

et al. 2017

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Ischemic stroke causes the depletion of energy and induce excitotoxicity and neuroinflammation in the brain that results from thrombotic blockage. Neuroinflammation occurs initially depending on activated resident microglia that has the same function as the macrophage. Activated microglia participates in the neuroinflammatory process by phagocytosing the injured brain cells and producing the pro-and anti-inflammatory mediators. In this review, the authors present an overview of the role of microglia in mediating neuroinflammation in ischemic stroke. Key words:Microglia, ischemic stroke, neuroinflammation ABSTRACT Topic: StrokeThis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons AttributionNonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as the author is credited and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.

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“…Nevertheless, it is important to point out that the precise role of TLR2 and TLR4 in neurodegeneration is controversial since they can trigger neurotoxicity but might be essential for the clearance of misfolded α-synuclein, thus exhibiting neuroprotective effects [96]. TLR2 and TLR4 also seem to play a dual role in the pathogenesis and progression of AD.…”

Section: Gut Microbiota: Role Of Toll-like Receptorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Gut–Brain Axis: Focus on Neurodegeneration and Mast Cells

2020

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Many studies highlighted that a bidirectional communication between the gut and the central nervous system (CNS) exists. A vigorous immune response to antigens must be avoided, and pathogenic organisms crossing the gut barrier must be detected and killed. For this reason, the immune system developed fine mechanisms able to maintain this delicate balance. The microbiota is beneficial to its host, providing protection against pathogenic bacteria. It is intimately involved in numerous aspects of host physiology, from nutritional status to behavior and stress response. In the last few years, the implication of the gut microbiota and its bioactive microbiota-derived molecules in the progression of multiple diseases, as well as in the development of neurodegenerative disorders, gained increasing attention. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the gut microbiota with particular attention toward neurological disorders and mast cells. Relevant roles are played by the mast cells in neuroimmune communication, such as sensors and effectors of cytokines and neurotransmitters. In this context, the intake of beneficial bacterial strains as probiotics could represent a valuable therapeutic approach to adopt in combination with classical therapies. Further studies need to be performed to understand if the gut bacteria are responsible for neurological disorders or if neurological disorders influence the bacterial profile.

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Neuronal toll-like receptors and neuro-immunity in Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and stroke

Cited by 55 publications

References 103 publications

The Neuropathic Itch Caused by Pseudorabies Virus

The Neuropathic Itch Caused by Pseudorabies Virus

Role of neuroinflammation in ischemic stroke

Gut–Brain Axis: Focus on Neurodegeneration and Mast Cells

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