Neuroinflammation: Breaking barriers and bridging gaps

Effects of electroactive materials on nerve cell behaviors and applications in peripheral nerve repair

“…111 From this four-stage process we can understand that the persistence of an inflammatory environment interferes with peripheral nerve repair processes, whereas antioxidant and anti-inflammatory treatments may promote peripheral nerve repair as an important strategy to prevent the initial neuroskeletal muscle atrophy. 112 It has been partially demonstrated that the application of electroactive materials could promote peripheral nerve repair by modulating the immune microenvironment at the site of nerve injury. 103,113 It has been shown as early as 1995 that after nerve injury, both innate immune cells (neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells) and acquired immune cells (T and B cells) will be recruited to the site of injury and regulate differentiation (dedifferentiation) and axonal regeneration of Schwann cells during Waller degeneration.…”

“…103,113 It has been shown as early as 1995 that after nerve injury, both innate immune cells (neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells) and acquired immune cells (T and B cells) will be recruited to the site of injury and regulate differentiation (dedifferentiation) and axonal regeneration of Schwann cells during Waller degeneration. 112,114 Moreover, as far as the current studies are concerned, macrophages play a highly important role in peripheral nerve repair. 114,115 For example, Cattin et al 105 showed that when the sciatic nerve was severed, the hypoxic state of the injury site was specifically sensed by macrophages, which would secrete VEGF-A to induce vascular differentiation and help Schwann cells to migrate and cross the severed end (bridging action), thus inducing nerve regeneration.…”

“…22 In addition, when combined with mesenchymal cells and macrophages, Schwann cells also produce chemokines and cytokines to promote the recruitment of immune cells. 112 In addition to the secretion of relevant active factors by macrophages, there are numerous studies showing that electroactive materials also promote the polarization of macrophages from M1 macrophages to M2 macrophages. 97,[117][118][119][120][121][122][123] (Fig.…”

“…111 From this four-stage process we can understand that the persistence of an inflammatory environment interferes with peripheral nerve repair processes, whereas antioxidant and anti-inflammatory treatments may promote peripheral nerve repair as an important strategy to prevent the initial neuroskeletal muscle atrophy. 112 It has been partially demonstrated that the application of electroactive materials could promote peripheral nerve repair by modulating the immune microenvironment at the site of nerve injury. 103,113…”

“…22 In addition, when combined with mesenchymal cells and macrophages, Schwann cells also produce chemokines and cytokines to promote the recruitment of immune cells. 112…”