“…Differential effects of circulating steroids between sexes e.g., estrogen in females and testosterone in males, potentially underly sexually dimorphic features of the MPOA. Interestingly, whereas some sexually dimorphic features, including cell density and connectivity, are determined predominantly by the presence or absence of the perinatal testosterone surge (organizational effects), the maintenance of neuronal circuitry mediating sexually dimorphic reproductive behaviors requires intact levels of circulating sex hormones during adulthood (activational effects) (Gegenhuber and Tollkuhn, 2020; Hull and Dominguez, 2019; McCarthy et al, 2017; Nugent et al, 2015; Wu et al, 2009; Xu et al, 2012). As the levels of circulating sex steroids start to rise and incrementally approach those of adults during puberty, hormone-dependent alterations of neuronal circuitry gradually mature, as observed in cortical and subcortical areas (Afroz et al, 2016; Piekarski et al, 2017; Sigl-Glöckner et al, 2019).…”