Neural Changes in Control Implementation of a Continuous Task

Abstract

It is commonly agreed that control implementation, being a resource-consuming endeavor, is not exerted continuously or in simple tasks. However, most research in the field was done using tasks that varied the need for control on a trial-by-trial basis (e.g., Stroop, flanker) in a discrete manner. In this case, the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was found to monitor the need for control, whereas regions in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) were found to be involved in control implementation. Whether or not the same control mechanism would be used in continuous tasks was an open question. In our study, we found that in a continuous task, the same neural substrate subserves control monitoring (ACC) but that the neural substrate of control implementation changes over time. Early in the task, regions in the PFC were involved in control implementation, whereas later the control was taken over by subcortical structures, specifically the caudate. Our results suggest that humans possess a flexible control mechanism, with a specific structure dedicated to monitoring the need for control and with multiple structures involved in control implementation.

Individual Differences in Typical Reappraisal Use Predict Amygdala and Prefrontal Responses

“…We found that, consistent with studies of instructed reappraisal, greater everyday reappraisal use predicted increased activation in regions associated with deploying a cognitive strategy (dlPFC) (41), appraising emotional states of self and others (dmPFC) (42), evaluating emotional value on the basis of context (lateral OFC) (43), and directing spatial attention (parietal cortex) (44). …”

Functional interactions between the caudate nuclei and inferior frontal gyrus providing deliberate deception

“…Analysis of literature data demonstrates that the activity in the caudate nuclei is observed exactly when enhanced control of actions is required: suppression of the actions learned earlier [32] and execution and planning of actions. Note that, in a number of studies jointly analyzing the level of the functional activity of the caudate nuclei and prefrontal cortex [33], the authors make conclusions on their interaction to ensure the use of higher order instructions (the "verbal rule") to carry out purposeful behavior. It is likely that, in the context of the present study, when, under the conditions of deception, it is necessary to constantly manipulate the opponent opinion on one's own actions, the synthesis of such instructions to choose a deceptive or truthful action is of greater significance.…”

The Neural Bases of Distraction and Reappraisal

“…Common activations included a large medial prefrontal region that included the dorsal anterior cingulate, which has been implicated in signaling the need for cognitive control (Lungu, Binenstock, Pline, Yeaton, & Carey, 2007; Milham, Banich, Claus, & Cohen, 2003; Procyk, Tanaka, & Joseph, 2000) and controlling attention to emotional stimuli (Hutcherson et al, 2005; McRae, Reiman, Fort, Chen, & Lane, in press), as well as left inferior parietal cortex, which may also reflect recruitment of attentional control processes in both strategies (Mayer et al, 2007). Also commonly active were regions of left lateral prefrontal cortex associated with verbal or working memory (Paulesu, Frith, & Frackowiak, 1993; Wager & Smith, 2003) and regions of right inferior prefrontal cortex associated with inhibition of motor responses (Aron, Robbins, & Poldrack, 2004) and other verbal strategies that can be used to down-regulate negative affective responses (Lieberman et al, 2007; Ochsner, Ray et al, 2004).…”