Negotiating Travel Constraints via Technology: A Study of Malay Muslim Women through a Hierarchical Constraint Model Perspective

Abstract

As a moderate Muslim nation, the mobility of Malay Muslim women in Malaysia is not legally restricted by the state. However, their movements are constrained by factors such as their roles, responsibilities, and the need to preserve values related to their religious and custom requirements. These constraints are shaped by patriarchal gender norms where women are expected to be obedient to a system of institutionalized male power. Our paper seeks to understand the constraints subjected to Malay Muslim women in travelling for leisure and study how they negotiate those constraints using technology. Based on ten qualitative, in-depth interviews conducted with Malay Muslim women aged between 22 to 37 years old, the findings showed that women are gaining the support, trust and freedom to travel via technology. Using the Hierarchical Constraint Model, the findings indicate that culture is significant wherein several constraints faced by MMW differ from those faced by Western or other Asian women. The new insights generated from this paper are unique as they reflect on the unexplored segment of Asian women where Malay Muslim women are becoming the testament of transformation. The finding indicates their departure from the gendered patriarchy norms as technology becomes their tool to negotiate constraints while facilitating the growth of female travel market. A significant association between travel constraints and negotiation illustrates that women are empowered by using technology to travel.

Breaking barriers for Bangladeshi female solo travelers

“…While travel constraints may vary across national borders, Tavakoli and Mura's (2021) critical review of Muslim women travelers' constraints suggests that constraints are recurringly experienced at both the micro (individual and family) and macro (national and international) levels. At the micro level, solo female travelers are concerned about their safety due to high incidents of sexual harassment and may perceive wearing a hijab as a risk because of the rise in Islamophobia following the 9/11 terrorist attacks (Ratthinan & Selamat, 2019). Others are deterred by guilt, as thoughts of leaving their family and day to day duties behind causes mental stress (Ratthinan & Selamat, 2019).…”

“…At the micro level, solo female travelers are concerned about their safety due to high incidents of sexual harassment and may perceive wearing a hijab as a risk because of the rise in Islamophobia following the 9/11 terrorist attacks (Ratthinan & Selamat, 2019). Others are deterred by guilt, as thoughts of leaving their family and day to day duties behind causes mental stress (Ratthinan & Selamat, 2019). This is because many solo female travelers are financially dependent on family and seeks to preserve a loving relationship with them (Tavakoli & Mura, 2021).…”

“…This is because many solo female travelers are financially dependent on family and seeks to preserve a loving relationship with them (Tavakoli & Mura, 2021). In fact, it is quite normal for Muslim women to seek approval from other family members prior to traveling (Tavakoli & Mura, 2017), which requires their prioritization of work and family obligation, leaving limited time for travel (Ratthinan & Selamat, 2019). For example, the social and cultural norms of Malay Muslim women expect them to be subservient wives, caring mothers, and obedient daughters (Abdullah et al, cited in Ratthinan & Selmat, 2019).…”

“…After 20 years of evaluating the HCM, Godbey et al (2010) made an appeal for contributions aimed at reforming impressions of the negotiation and constraint processes, particularly for women in developing countries in order to increase their leisure opportunities that will ultimately contribute to gender equality. Negotiation is defined as strategies and measures implemented to overcome travel constraints and rejecting related socio-cultural norms (Masika & Bailur, 2015;Ratthinan & Selamat, 2019). This was relevant to the present study because social behaviors are governed by norms and rules that align with national values in several Muslim-majority countries (Shakeela & Cooper, 2009), including Bangladesh.…”

“…(Ferguson, 2011, p.246). While a great deal of work has focused on theories surrounding constraints to travel (Crawford, Jackson, & Godbey;Hung & Petrick, 2010;Lai, Li, & Harril, 2013;Han et al, 2019;Ratthinan & Selamat., 2019), very little has examined how theory holds up in the context of Muslim female travelers, particularly in terms of cultural identity (Asbollah et al, 2013;Aichison, Hopkins, & Kwan, 2007). Applying a theoretical framework such as Hofstede's cultural dimensions on constraints to travel can illuminate the challenges for Bangladeshi solo women travelers and further refine the theory.…”