Narcolepsy in Children: Sleep disorders in children, A rapidly evolving field seeking consensus

Abstract

Narcolepsy is a life‐long sleep disorder with two distinct subtypes, narcolepsy type I and narcolepsy type II. It is now well recognized that the loss of hypocretin neurons underlies the pathogenesis of narcolepsy type I, however, the pathogenesis of narcolepsy type II is currently unknown. Both genetic and environmental factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of narcolepsy. There is increasing evidence that autoimmune processes may play a critical role in the loss of hypocretin neurons. Infections especially streptococcus and influenza have been proposed as a potential trigger for the autoimmune‐mediated mechanism. Several recent studies have shown increased cases of pediatric narcolepsy following the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. The increased cases in Europe seem to be related to a specific type of H1N1 influenza vaccination (Pandemrix), while the increased cases in China are related to influenza infection. Children with narcolepsy can have an unusual presentation at disease onset including complex motor movements which may lead to delayed diagnosis. All classic narcolepsy tetrads are present in only a small proportion of children. The diagnosis of narcolepsy is confirmed by either obtaining cerebrospinal fluid hypocretin or overnight sleep study with the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT). There are limitations of using MSLT in young children such that a negative MSLT test cannot exclude narcolepsy. HLA markers have limited utility in narcolepsy, but it may be useful in young children with clinical suspicion of narcolepsy. For management, both pharmacologic and non‐pharmacologic treatments are important in the management of narcolepsy. Pharmacotherapy is primarily aimed to address excessive daytime sleepiness and REM‐related symptoms such as cataplexy. In addition to pharmacotherapy, routine screening of behavioral and psychosocial issues is warranted to identify patients who would benefit from bio‐behavior intervention.

Nanoparticle-Based Adjuvants and Delivery Systems for Modern Vaccines

“…The obtained results confirmed the good safety profile of ASO3 ® -containing vaccines. However, some findings imply that ASO3 ® may be responsible for the reported narcolepsy cases after pediatric influenza vaccine administration [ 91 ]. On the other hand, the manufacturing peculiarity of AFO3 ® is that, unlike for other submicron emulsions, the phase inversion temperature procedure—a low-energy emulsification technique—was applied [ 82 ].…”