Nanoscale Measurements of Lithium‐Ion‐Battery Materials using Scanning Probe Techniques

Abstract

State‐of‐the‐art scanning probe microscopy (SPM) methods as applied to energy conversion and storage devices, specifically lithium‐ion batteries, are reviewed with an emphasis on the electroactive elements. The unique ability of SPM‐based methods to provide localized information has proven highly valuable for the in‐depth understanding of the fundamental mechanisms, processes, and degradation of lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs). As such, SPM analysis is poised to play a strong role in the competition for new higher performing LIBs, especially given the unprecedented choice and availability of SPM techniques tailored to provide physical and chemical information at the nanoscale.

Advances in Understanding Materials for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries by Atomic Force Microscopy

“…In the past decades, various state‐of‐the‐art ex situ and in situ characterization techniques have been developed to obtain accurate information about interfacial evolution in batteries . It is generally accepted that atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a useful and powerful technique to characterize surfaces of electrodes by monitoring and analyzing the tip–surface interaction . The AFM tip keeps neutral in delicate imaging process; therefore, accurate in situ information about surface evolution can be obtained with minimal destruction.…”

Application of Alternating Current Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy in Lithium‐Ion Batteries: Local Visualization of the Electrode Surface

“…Recently the scanning probe microscopy (SPM) methods has been applied in the lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) studies to provide localized information for the understanding of fundamental mechanisms and degradation process . There are various types of SPMs used depending on the interaction between the probe and surface .…”

“…Recently the scanning probe microscopy (SPM) methods has been applied in the lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) studies to provide localized information for the understanding of fundamental mechanisms and degradation process. [1] There are various types of SPMs used depending on the interaction between the probe and surface. [2] Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) [3] and related techniques [4] obtain the local electrochemical activity through the change of current or potential at the microelectrode or micropipette.…”

Pyrolytic Carbon Films with Tunable Electronic Structure and Surface Functionality: A Planar Stand‐In for Electroanalysis of Energy‐Relevant Reactions

“…Characterizing fundamental charge‐transfer dynamics at such technologically relevant, but physicochemically complex interphases may be simplified by designing planar mimics of advanced 3D electrode architectures. A 2D stand‐in allows heterogeneous electron‐transfer rate constants to be determined as a function of modifications to the carbon and enables surface‐sensitive analysis using such tools as scanning probe microscopy . Films of “soft” carbons such as highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), and graphene have served as model 2D substrates for graphitic carbons, but disordered “hard” carbons still dominate in many energy‐relevant electrochemical applications, ranging from carbon blacks used in commercial cells and devices to advanced porous carbons derived from pyrolyzing templated or aerogel‐like organic precursors.…”

“…A 2D stand-in allows heterogeneous electron-transfer rate constants to be deter-mined as a function of modifications to the carbon [25] and enables surface-sensitive analysis using such tools as scanning probe microscopy. [26][27][28] Films of "soft" carbons such as highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), [29][30][31] and graphene [32] have served as model 2D substrates for graphitic carbons, but disordered "hard" carbons still dominate in many energyrelevant electrochemical applications, ranging from carbon blacks used in commercial cells and devices to advanced porous carbons derived from pyrolyzing templated [33] or aerogel-like [34] organic precursors. Hard carbons are also being exploited in new ways, for example as negative electrodes in Na-ion batteries.…”