Nanoparticles: Synthesis and Their Role as Potential Drug Candidates for the Treatment of Parasitic Diseases

Abstract

Protozoa, helminths and ectoparasites are the major groups of parasites distributed worldwide. Currently, these parasites are treated with chemotherapeutic antiprotozoal drugs, anti-helminthic and anti-ectoparasitic agents, but, with the passage of time, resistance to these drugs has developed due to overuse. In this scenario, nanoparticles are proving to be a major breakthrough in the treatment and control of parasitic diseases. In the last decade, there has been enormous development in the field of nanomedicine for parasitic control. Gold and silver nanoparticles have shown promising results in the treatments of various types of parasitic infections. These nanoparticles are synthesized through the use of various conventional and molecular technologies and have shown great efficacy. They work in different ways, that include damaging the parasite membrane, DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) disruption, protein synthesis inhibition and free-radical formation. These agents are effective against intracellular parasites as well. Other nanoparticles, such as iron, nickel, zinc and platinum, have also shown good results in the treatment and control of parasitic infections. It is hoped that this research subject will become the future of modern drug development. This review summarizes the methods that are used to synthesize nanoparticles and their possible mechanisms of action against parasites.

In Vitro Acaricidal Activity of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) against the Poultry Red Mite (Dermanyssus gallinae)

“…Although the exact methods used for contact toxicity bioassays are different between the present study and the one by Thomas et al [ 15 ], we examined more PRM field isolates (18 compared to 13), and none were resistant to AgNPs. This finding is in agreement with other studies showing that nanoparticles do not induce resistance in parasites [ 32 ], and to the best of the authors’ knowledge, there are no resistance reports of parasites against AgNPs.…”

“…The fundamental idea behind nanomedicine is the meticulous engineering of nanoparticles that allows for the use of fewer chemical compounds at lower dosages to ensure better treatment outcomes [ 32 ]. According to in vitro bioassays with AgNPs against ticks and mosquitos and bioassays with acaricides against PRM, the 24-h exposure time was chosen as the most appropriate duration for the current bioassays [ 38 , 46 ].…”

“…Another point to consider is the safety of using AgNPs in the context of One Health (animals, humans, and the environment). In general, nanoparticles are considered non-toxic, but that heavily depends on their synthesis and physiochemical characteristics like size, structure, and electric charge [ 32 ]. Smaller nanoparticles and those with a higher electric charge, like the ones synthesized in the current study (average size: 4.8 ± 1.0 nm and surface charge: +14.8 mV), are considered safer [ 32 ].…”

“…In general, nanoparticles are considered non-toxic, but that heavily depends on their synthesis and physiochemical characteristics like size, structure, and electric charge [ 32 ]. Smaller nanoparticles and those with a higher electric charge, like the ones synthesized in the current study (average size: 4.8 ± 1.0 nm and surface charge: +14.8 mV), are considered safer [ 32 ]. Nanoparticles should be quickly eliminated from hens, and any residues in eggs, tissues, and organs should be measured to ensure they are lower than the major residue limits (MRLs) so that animal welfare and consumer safety are protected.…”

“…Over the years, different metal nanoparticles have been manufactured with diverse techniques and materials, each having distinct benefits and drawbacks [ 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) represent a novel and promising prospect to control PRM infestations without the risk of PRM developing resistance against them [ 32 ]. They could be employed by spraying the instruments and equipment of laying hen facilities (i.e., perches and under the egg conveyer belts) [ 17 ], including cracks and crevices where mites typically hide during the day.…”