Nanoparticle-Labeled Exosomes as Theranostic Agents: A Review

Abstract

It is rapidly becoming evident that secreted vesicles, specifically exosomes, are the next generation of theranostic natural nanoparticles. "Theranostic" refers to the combined treatment and diagnosis of disease. Artificial nanoparticles have been widely used as theranostic molecules due to their unique properties. However, there are limitations to using them in clinical applications, mainly because of their toxicity, short-term circulation, and immunogenicity. Emerging evidence suggests that naturally occurring nanoparticles such as extracellular vesicles (EVs) may solve some of these limitations. One of many documented vesicles produced by cells, exosomes, are secreted by various cell types and under varying conditions. The small size range (30−120 nm), components, lack of toxicity, long-term circulation times, and low immunogenicity of exosomes make them very attractive natural nanoparticles to use in diagnosing and treating diseases. In addition to acting as drug and nucleic acid vehicles, exosomes can carry and deliver magnetic nanoparticles like iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs), plasmonically active gold nanorods (AuNRs), hollow gold nanoparticles (HGNPs), and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Loading and/or labeling exosomes with strategic nanoparticles makes theranostics easier and more effective because exosomes can facilitate cell−cell interaction, which increases their targeting efficiency as well as their ability to aid photothermal therapy in vitro and in vivo. However, the methods and approaches to successfully label and track these nanostructures are still being refined by the life sciences community. In this Review, we will discuss notable exosome labeling approaches that have been studied to enable exosomes to carry active nanoparticles for diagnostic, therapeutic, and photothermal therapy purposes. We will represent (1) the types of nanoparticles (NPs) and the approaches that are used to label exosomes with the NPs; (2) the applications of exosomes labeled with nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo; (3) the labeling strategy for exosomes identification and cancer detection.

Research Advances of Engineered Exosomes as Drug Delivery Carrier

“…Low molecular weight therapeutic agents (nucleic acids, peptides, and proteins) or artificial nanoparticles can be loaded into exosomes as a vehicle for combination therapy. , According to the loading method, it can be divided into endogenous loading and exogenous loading. As shown in Figure , the endogenous loading is the carrying of drugs into the parent cells, and the parent cells secrete drug-carrying exosomes.…”

Synthesis Innovations and Applications of Dual Plasmonic Heteronanostructures: Fundamentals to Future Horizons

“…Such coupling of plasmonic resonance in multicomponent NCs offers access to multiple functionalities and unconventional properties . There has been an emerging endeavor to engineer plasmonic materials as a suitable alternative to fine-tune the LSPR interactions. − The plethora of metal–semiconductor NCs and their heterostructures that exhibit plasmonic resonance are reviewed elsewhere. ,,,,,,− This review deftly outlines the advances in synthesizing metal–metal, metal–semiconductor, and metal–metal oxides NHCs that feature dual plasmonic resonance with their applications in sensing, , photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, , photovoltaics, , lasers, display, bioimaging, theranostics, ,− etc. The first part of this review provides a brief explanation of the physical properties and optical functionalities of plasmonic nanostructures while emphasizing LSPR–LSPR coupled NHCs.…”

Thermosensitive Capturer Coupled with the CD63 Aptamer for Highly Efficient Isolation of Exosomes

“…Organisms produce exosomes under normal physiological and pathological conditions, and they have been detected in various bodily fluids . Exosomes mediate intercellular communication, and their contents affect various life processes, including angiogenesis, metastasis, anticancer resistance, immune evasion, macrophage polarization, and metabolic reprogramming. − Exosomes are increasingly recognized as promising biomarkers for a range of diseases. − Exosomes display low toxicity, biodegradability, and efficient tissue targeting, which make them reliable delivery vehicles. − Although exosome therapies have been developed by some pharmaceutical companies, there are still many obstacles in the production of clinical grade exosomes for treatment . Especially, the isolation of exosomes is a crucial step in the production process of exosomes .…”