Nanocoral-like Polyaniline-Modified Graphene-Based Electrochemical Paper-Based Analytical Device for a Portable Electrochemical Sensor for Xylazine Detection

Abstract

A portable electrochemical device for xylazine detection is presented for the first time. An electrochemical paper-based analytical device (ePAD) was integrated with a smartphone. The fabrication of the ePAD involved wax printing, low-tack transfer tape, and cutting and screen-printing techniques. Graphene ink was coated on the substrate and modified with nanocoral-like polyaniline, providing an electron transfer medium with a larger effective surface area that promoted charge transfer. The conductive ink on the ePAD presented a thickness of 25.0 ± 0.9 μm for an effective surface area of 0.374 cm 2 . This sensor was then tested directly on xylazine using differential pulse voltammetry. Two linear responses were obtained: from 0.2 to 5 μg mL –1 and from 5 to 100 μg mL –1 . The detection limit was 0.06 μg mL –1 . Reproducibility was tested on 10 preparations. The relative standard deviation was less than 5%. The applicability of the sensor was evaluated with beverage samples spiked with trace xylazine. Recoveries ranged from 84 ± 4 to 105 ± 2%. The developed sensor demonstrated excellent accuracy in the detection of trace xylazine. It would be possible to develop the portable system to detect various illicit drugs to aid forensic investigations.

Xylazine in the Opioid Epidemic: A Systematic Review of Case Reports and Clinical Implications

“…However, this technique is expensive and time-consuming, prompting the development of alternative approaches like Xylazine test strips, which provide a more cost-effective and rapid means for presumptive testing [ 66 ]. Other proposed solutions involve novel electrochemical sensor platforms like a laser-scribed graphene device [ 67 ] or an electrochemical paper-based analytical device [ 68 ].…”

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“…Practical testing confirmed its accuracy, with 84-105% recovery in beverage samples. 187 Another study used GR quantum dots (GQDs) coupled with cobalt phthalocyanine (CoPc) to modify glassy carbon electrodes (GCE). 188 The resulting CoPc/GQDs/GCEs showed superior electrocatalytic activity for the simultaneous detection of dopamine (DA) and UA in PBS, outperforming traditional CoPc electrodes.…”

A highly efficient and portable laser-scribed graphene-based electrochemical system for forensic-oriented determination of acepromazine

“…14 The drug-facilitated sexual assaults occur mainly by ingestion of drinks containing a tranquilizer drug in a way that the victim might not be able to detect, i.e ., species that do not change the organoleptic properties. 15,16 Thus, the analysis of residues of beverage samples found at a crime scene is a common practice from the forensic perspective. 17…”

“…14 The drug-facilitated sexual assaults occur mainly by ingestion of drinks containing a tranquilizer drug in a way that the victim might not be able to detect, i.e., species that do not change the organoleptic properties. 15,16 Thus, the analysis of residues of beverage samples found at a crime scene is a common practice from the forensic perspective. 17 The most common methods used for ACP determination have predominantly been chromatographic, such as highperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) 18,19 and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.…”