Nano-engineered tools in the diagnosis, therapeutics, prevention, and mitigation of SARS-CoV-2

Abstract

The recent outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 has forever altered mankind resulting in the COVID-19 pandemic. This respiratory virus further manifests into vital organ damage. Nanotechnology has been moonlighting in the scientific community to combat several severe diseases. This review highlights the triune of the nano-toolbox in the areas of diagnostics, therapeutics, prevention, and mitigation of SARS-CoV-2. Nanogold test kits have already been on the frontline of rapid detection. Breath tests, magnetic nanoparticle-based nucleic acid detectors, and the use of Raman Spectroscopy present myriads of possibilities in developing point of care biosensors. This will ensure sensitive, affordable, and accessiblemass surveillance. Most of the therapeutics are trying to focus on blocking the viral entry into the cell and fighting with cytokine storm. Nanobodies as vaccines against S and N protein have regained importance. All the vaccines coming with promising phase 3 clinical trials have used nano-delivery systems for delivery of vaccine-cargo. The use of chemically diverse metal, carbon and polymeric nanoparticles, nanocages and nanobubbles demonstrate opportunities to develop anti-viral nanomedicine. Nanotechnology also presents myriads of options for targeted drug delivery. In order to prevent and mitigate the viral spread, high-performance charged nanofiber filters, spray coating of nanomaterials on surfaces, novel materials for PPE kits and facemasks have been developed that accomplish over 90% capture of airborne SARS-CoV-2. Nano polymer-based disinfectants are being tested to make smart-transport for human activities. Despite the promises of this toolbox, challenges in terms of reproducibility, specificity, and efficacy are yet to overcome.

Diagnostic assay and technology advancement for detecting SARS-CoV-2 infections causing the COVID-19 pandemic

“…Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, and PNA molecules), DNA probes, enzymes, organelles, proteins, aptamers, exosomes, entire cells, biomimetics, microorganisms, phages, and tissues are examples of bioreceptors [138]. In the current COVID-19 pandemic that has compromised the health of the world's people and economies, nanomaterialenhanced biosensors could be an effective device for speedy, efficient, portable, mass manufacturing compatibility and a more promising diagnostic alternative to conventional diagnostic methods [140]. Electrochemical and optical biosensors have sparked a lot of interest among diagnostic users because of their ease of detection, downsizing, sensor size flexibility, and sensitive parameter controllability [140].…”

Progressive membrane-binding mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 variant spike proteins

“…A corollary is that definition of the ideal lipid composition for binding stably to viral surfaces would be desirable, with stable complementation of the basic binding surface of the RBD being recommended for specific intervention. Building on the development of phospholipid-based aerosol treatments, resilient nanoparticle-based treatments for COVID-19 are being designed to deliver stable lipid formulations (Kamat et al, 2021). Such agents could potentially not only maintain respiratory system function but also directly target a key step in infection.…”

COVID-19 inflammation and implications in drug delivery

“…More importantly, neutralizing the hyperinflammation syndrome is independent of the virus mutation possibilities constituting the primary hurdle for antiviral drugs or vaccine efficiency [ 50 ]. Although promising, targeting inflammation constitutes a significant challenge in itself due to the complexity of cytokines interactions and the multiplicity of inflammatory pathways orchestrated by a multitude of molecules rendering the inhibition of one or a few of them not enough to reverse the inflammatory syndrome in the clinic [ 19 ]. For this, a plethora of anti-inflammatory agents has been proposed.…”

“…This may be partly attributed to the complexity of cytokine interactions and the multiplicity of inflammatory pathways orchestrated by many molecules, rendering the inhibition of one or a few of them not enough to reverse the inflammatory syndrome. Also, this may be ascribed to the lack of specificity, stability, and undesirable kinetics profiles of these agents [ 19 ]. Therefore, together with identifying new therapeutic targets and testing different anti-inflammatory agents, the development of suitable drug delivery systems (DDS) is needed, especially after the recent advances of nanotechnology in inflammatory diseases [ [20] , [21] , [22] ].…”