Mycotoxins in food and feed

Silver/Chitosan Nanocomposites: Preparation and Characterization and Their Fungicidal Activity against Dairy Cattle Toxicosis Penicillium expansum

“…P. expansum usually occurs in soil and is associated with some moldy fruits and vegetables, especially rotten apples and figs. It is the main source of citrinin and patulin in natural products [4]. P. expansum has also been isolated in fish feed, and the use of vegetable waste as a nutrient may be the reason for the existence of this species in processed fish feed [5].…”

“…P. expansum has also been isolated in fish feed, and the use of vegetable waste as a nutrient may be the reason for the existence of this species in processed fish feed [5]. Food and feed contamination with patulin and citrinin is quite low, but patulin occurs in apple juice, apples, and pears that are exposed to brown rot, as well as in grapes, flowers, and animal feed during storage [4]. Mycotoxins, which are produced by certain Pencillium species, for example, patulin, PR toxin, roxfortin, and mycophenol, are known for their high ability to cause mycotoxicosis in animals.…”

Recent Advances in Mycotoxin Analysis and Detection of Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Grapes and Derived Products

“…Chromatographic mycotoxin analysis involves a multistage operation including sample preparation, the extraction of mycotoxins, and finally identification and quantification. However, a considerable number of factors such as mycotoxigenic fungi heterogeneity, my-cotoxin chemical structure variability, distribution in food-chain products, and the latter's matrix complexity result in difficulties not only for identification and quantification but also for the development and adaptation of a common analytical approach [10,98]. An advised sampling plan and sample preparation are prerequisites for reliable analytical results of mycotoxin quantification, especially when grapes are perceived as raw and intermediate materials that will undergo further processing, such as in the cases of juices, wine, and dried grape production.…”

“…The extraction step aims to disengage the mycotoxin from the sample matrix, and often is followed by a subsequent clean-up step of the delivered extract to reduce matrix effects and kindred substances extracted together with the mycotoxin [10,105]. Some commonly used techniques are liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), solid-liquid extraction (SLE), and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), but the most frequently applied extraction techniques for mycotoxins are the several types of solid phase extraction (SPE), with some of them presenting the advantage of both purification and pre-concentration at the same time.…”

“…Its significance is due to its low cost and simple instrumentation, as well as the easy fluorescent spots appearance under UV, which are diminished by its poor accuracy and low sensitivity, making mycotoxin quantification a difficult task. Nevertheless, TLC was further developed into high-performance TLC (HPTLC) by the reduction of both layer thickness and particle size, achieving more precise and accurate results for certain mycotoxin determination (e.g., AFs and OTA) [10,106,109].…”