Mycotoxins: Factors influencing production and control strategies

Daou, Rouaa; Joubrane, Karine; Maroun, Richard G.; Khabbaz, Lydia Rabbaa; Ismail, Ali; Khoury, A.

doi:10.3934/agrfood.2021025

Cited by 97 publications

(92 citation statements)

References 96 publications

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“…Interestingly, we observed that the concentrations of both Fusarium and Alternaria metabolites responded to increasing temperature in a similar pattern with a critical temperature of 15 °C triggering the exponential increment of these metabolites. This matches with the fact that temperature is a primary determining factor implicated in the modulation of fungal growth and the subsequent mycotoxin production [ 82 , 83 ]. The effect on selective groups of fungal metabolites may suggest that the metabolism of these fungi driven by temperature may be interconnected.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 71%

“…Our results also suggest that the number of fungal metabolites was higher in pastures sampled later in the grazing season (July and October), which should be confirmed by future studies. Furthermore, the production of fungal secondary metabolites is mediated by several biotic and abiotic factors, [ 82 ], which cannot be entirely covered by the present study. Therefore, future studies with a larger sample size, more geographic locations and extended years of observation are pivotal to verify the current results regarding the critical temperature and its association with other geo-climatic and botanical factors for elevating mycotoxin contamination of pastures.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Mycotoxins, Phytoestrogens and Other Secondary Metabolites in Austrian Pastures: Occurrences, Contamination Levels and Implications of Geo-Climatic Factors

Penagos-Tabares

Khiaosa‐ard

Nagl³

et al. 2021

Toxins

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Pastures are key feed sources for dairy production and can be contaminated with several secondary metabolites from fungi and plants with toxic or endocrine-disrupting activities, which possess a risk for the health, reproduction and performance of cattle. This exploratory study aimed to determine the co-occurrences and concentrations of a wide range of mycotoxins, phytoestrogens and other secondary metabolites in grazing pastures. Representative samples of pastures were collected from 18 Austrian dairy farms (one sample per farm) between April to October 2019. After sample preparation (drying and milling) the pastures were subjected to multi-metabolite analysis using LC-MS/MS. In total, 68 metabolites were detected, including regulated zearalenone and deoxynivalenol (range: 2.16–138 and 107–505 μg/kg on a dry matter (DM) basis, respectively), modified (3-deoxynivalenol-glucoside, HT-2-glucoside) and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins (e.g., enniatins), ergot alkaloids and Alternaria metabolites along with phytoestrogens and other metabolites. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin and ochratoxins were not detected. Of the geo-climatic factors and botanical diversity investigated, the environment temperature (average of 2 pre-sampling months and the sampling month) was the most influential factor. The number of fungal metabolites linearly increased with increasing temperatures and temperatures exceeding 15 °C triggered an exponential increment in the concentrations of Fusarium and Alternaria metabolites and ergot alkaloids. In conclusion, even though the levels of regulated mycotoxins detected were below the EU guidance levels, the long-term exposure along with co-occurrence with modified and emerging mycotoxins might be an underestimated risk for grazing and forage-fed livestock. The one-year preliminary data points out a dominant effect of environmental temperature in the diversity and contamination level of fungal metabolites in pastures.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 71%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Mycotoxins, Phytoestrogens and Other Secondary Metabolites in Austrian Pastures: Occurrences, Contamination Levels and Implications of Geo-Climatic Factors

Penagos-Tabares

Khiaosa‐ard

Nagl³

et al. 2021

Toxins

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“…Additional research data on F. verticillioides , and exposure and safety evaluations of fumonisin are needed to evaluate the potential toxicity of this toxin and its byproducts. Further research on the safety of physical, chemical, and biological decontamination are needed, and specific strategies that combine an integrated decontamination approach must be developed to remove the fumonisin content from cereals and cereal-based foods to the greatest possible extent [ 151 ]. Research has been effectively carried out across a wide area to reduce the growth of Fusarium species and fumonisin production during pre-harvest and post-harvest stages by practicing natural and biological methods, including plant materials, minerals, and microorganisms.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Current Perspectives of Biocontrol Agents for Management of Fusarium verticillioides and Its Fumonisin in Cereals—A Review

Deepa

Achar

Sreenivasa

2021

JoF

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Fusarium verticillioides is the most predominant fungal phytopathogen of cereals and it is posing great concern from a global perspective. The fungus is mainly associated with maize, rice, sorghum, wheat, sugarcane, banana, and asparagus and causes cob, stalk, ear, root, crown, top, and foot rot. F. verticillioides produces fumonisins as the major secondary metabolite along with trace levels of beauvericin, fusaric acid, fusarin C, gibberiliformin, and moniliformin. Being a potential carcinogen, fumonisins continue to receive major attention as they are common contaminants in cereals and its processed food products. The importance of elimination of F. verticillioides growth and its associated fumonisin from cereals cannot be overemphasized considering the significant health hazards associated with its consumption. Physical and chemical approaches have been shown to reduce fumonisin B1 concentrations among feeds and food products but have proved to be ineffective during the production process. Hence, biological control methods using microorganisms, plant extracts, antioxidants, essential oils, phenolic compounds, and other advanced technologies such as growing disease-resistant crops by applying genetic engineering, have become an effective alternative for managing F. verticillioides and its toxin. The different methods, challenges, and concerns regarding the biocontrol of F. verticillioides and production of fumonisin B1 have been addressed in the present review.

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“…The growth of Fungi is categorized into primary and secondary growths. In primary growth, organic compounds are required for the biomass synthesis and production of energy needed to drive chemical reactions to produce the primary metabolites that are essential for growth; secondary growth takes place after the phase of maintained growth and may, sometimes, lead to sporulation and secondary metabolites production [1]. The secondary metabolites, including mycotoxins, have no significant impacts on the fungal growth, but appear to be produced as a result of the excess accumulation of the precursors of primary metabolites, as a means to reduce their concentrations in the fungi [12].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Fungal Growth and Mycotoxins Production: Types, Toxicities, Control Strategies, and Detoxification

Awuchi¹,

Ondari²,

Ifie³

et al. 2022

Fungal Reproduction and Growth

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Fungal growth and the production of mycotoxins are influenced by several factors. Environmental conditions such as temperature, water activity, and humidity affect mycotoxin production and fungal growth. Other factors such as pH, fungal strain, and substrate also play roles. Common mycotoxins include aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, sterigmatocystin (STC), citrinin, ergot alkaloids, ochratoxins, zearalenones (ZEAs), patulin, deoxynivalenol (DON), Alternaria toxins, tremorgenic mycotoxins, fusarins, cyclochlorotine, sporidesmin, 3-nitropropionic acid, etc. These toxins cause many health conditions in animals and humans, including death. A comprehensive approach starting from the field before planting, continuing throughout the entire food chain is required to control mycotoxin contamination. Good practices, such as proper field practices before and after planting, good harvest practices and postharvest handling, and proper drying and storage measures, help reduce mycotoxin contamination. Several physical, biological, and chemical techniques have been applied to help reduce/eliminate mycotoxin contamination. Food processing also play slight role in mycotoxins removal.

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Mycotoxins: Factors influencing production and control strategies

Cited by 97 publications

References 96 publications

Mycotoxins, Phytoestrogens and Other Secondary Metabolites in Austrian Pastures: Occurrences, Contamination Levels and Implications of Geo-Climatic Factors

Mycotoxins, Phytoestrogens and Other Secondary Metabolites in Austrian Pastures: Occurrences, Contamination Levels and Implications of Geo-Climatic Factors

Current Perspectives of Biocontrol Agents for Management of Fusarium verticillioides and Its Fumonisin in Cereals—A Review

Fungal Growth and Mycotoxins Production: Types, Toxicities, Control Strategies, and Detoxification

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