Mycotoxins at the Start of the Food Chain in Costa Rica: Analysis of Six Fusarium Toxins and Ochratoxin A between 2013 and 2017 in Animal Feed and Aflatoxin M1 in Dairy Products

Abstract

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites, produced by fungi of genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium (among others), which produce adverse health effects on humans and animals (carcinogenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive). In addition, mycotoxins negatively affect the productive parameters of livestock (e.g., weight, food consumption, and food conversion). Epidemiological studies are considered necessary to assist stakeholders with the process of decision-making regarding the control of mycotoxins in processing environments. This study addressed the prevalence in feed ingredients and compound feed of eight different types of toxins, including metabolites produced by Fusarium spp. (Deoxynivalenol/3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, T-2/HT-2 toxins, zearalenone and fumonisins) and two additional toxins (i.e., ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1)) from different fungal species, for over a period of five years. On the subject of Fusarium toxins, higher prevalences were observed for fumonisins (n = 80/113, 70.8%) and DON (n = 212/363, 58.4%), whereas, for OTA, a prevalence of 40.56% was found (n = 146/360). In the case of raw material, mycotoxin contamination exceeding recommended values were observed in cornmeal for HT-2 toxin (n = 3/24, 12.5%), T-2 toxin (n = 3/61, 4.9%), and ZEA (n = 2/45, 4.4%). In contrast, many compound feed samples exceeded recommended values; in dairy cattle feed toxins such as DON (n = 5/147, 3.4%), ZEA (n = 6/150, 4.0%), T-2 toxin (n = 10/171, 5.9%), and HT-2 toxin (n = 13/132, 9.8%) were observed in high amounts. OTA was the most common compound accompanying Fusarium toxins (i.e., 16.67% of co-occurrence with ZEA). This study also provided epidemiological data for AFM1 in liquid milk. The outcomes unveiled a high prevalence of contamination (i.e., 29.6–71.1%) and several samples exceeding the regulatory threshold. Statistical analysis exposed no significant climate effect connected to the prevalence of diverse types of mycotoxins.

Aflatoxin M1 in Nicaraguan and locally made hard white cheeses marketed in El Salvador

“…It has been described that prolonged events or conditions of shortage of rain or drought and high temperatures are associated with increases in AFM 1 contamination in dairy products or in their raw material [ 15 , [22] , [23] , [24] , 41 ]. The increases in temperature and the decrease in rainfall upsurge the conditions for the growth of aflatoxicogenic fungi in corn [ 3 , 4 , 42 , 43 ], the main raw ingredient of feedstuff for cattle [ 22 , 42 , 44 , 45 ], therefore, the consumption of contaminated feed will cause the temporary increase of AFM 1 in milk and its derivatives [ 13 , 15 , 23 ]. The previous framework would explain the increase in the prevalence of samples of Salvadoran and Nicaraguan cheeses, with levels of AFM 1 that exceed the limit of 0.050 μg/kg during the dry season months, precisely when the use of supplementary food is used more before the shortage of grass for all the cattle, especially the lactating ones.…”

Plant Metabolites in Plant Defense Against Pathogens

“…When carrying out an exhaustive search in the literature, it was found that the potential use of the secondary metabolites obtained from medicinal plant extracts is fungicide [14][15][16]. Most of the research in this area focuses on evaluating the effects of these active compounds on fungi such as Fusarium, maybe because it is one of the main phytopathogens that cause economic losses mainly in cereal crops and health problems by their aflatoxins [17,18]. This chapter shows an overview of the recent research on this topic, emphasizing the effect of biotic and abiotic elicitors on the secondary metabolite production, as well as a brief description of the scientific name of the plant, metabolites with antifungal and antibacterial effect, and their limitations and perspectives of its use in the biological control of phytopathogens.…”

Dietary exposure of deoxynivalenol affected cytochrome P450 and growth related-gene expression via DNA methylation in piglet liver

“…The contamination of grain by DON is associated with the strain, temperature, humidity, ventilation, sunshine and other factors [3]. DON is mainly present in wheat, barley, oats, corn and other cereal crops [4], bread, biscuits, wheat snacks and other food products [5], animal milk, eggs [6] and fruit [7]. DON can also cause pollution in fresh and waste water treatment plants [1].…”