Mycotoxin identification in moldy dwellings

Charpin-Kadouch, C.; Maurel, G.; Felipo, R.; Quéralt, J.; Ramadour, M.; Dumon, H.; Garans, Max; Botta, A.; Charpin, D.

doi:10.1002/jat.1164

Cited by 34 publications

(13 citation statements)

References 23 publications

(25 reference statements)

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“…[25][26][27][28] Many have preferred to use mass spectrometry (MS)-based methods, especially tandem MS (MS/MS), because of the high analytical specificity. Vishwanath and co-authors published a method for the simultaneous determination of 186 fungal and bacterial secondary metabolites in indoor matrices using HPLC-MS/MS.…”

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Microbial secondary metabolites in school buildings inspected for moisture damage in Finland, The Netherlands and Spain

et al. 2012

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Secondary metabolites produced by fungi and bacteria are among the potential agents that contribute to adverse health effects observed in occupants of buildings affected by moisture damage, dampness and associated microbial growth. However, few attempts have been made to assess the occurrence of these compounds in relation to moisture damage and dampness in buildings. This study conducted in the context of the HITEA project (Health Effects of Indoor Pollutants: Integrating microbial, toxicological and epidemiological approaches) aimed at providing systematic information on the prevalence of microbial secondary metabolites in a large number of school buildings in three European countries, considering both buildings with and without moisture damage and/or dampness observations. In order to address the multitude and diversity of secondary metabolites a large number of more than 180 analytes was targeted in settled dust and surface swab samples using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) based methodology. While 42%, 58% and 44% of all samples collected in Spanish, Dutch and Finnish schools, respectively, were positive for at least one of the metabolites analyzed, frequency of detection for the individual microbial secondary metabolites -with the exceptions of emodin, certain enniatins and physcion -was low, typically in the range of and below 10% of positive samples. In total, 30 different fungal and bacterial secondary metabolites were found in the samples. Some differences in the metabolite profiles were observed between countries and between index and reference school buildings. A major finding in this study was that settled dust derived from moisture damaged, damp schools contained larger numbers of microbial secondary metabolites at higher levels compared to respective dust samples from schools not affected by moisture damage and dampness. This observation was true for schools in each of the three countries, but became statistically significant only when combining schools from all countries and thus increasing the sample number in the statistical analyses. Environmental impactA multitude of different microbial secondary metabolites, often referred to as 'microbial toxins', are part of the complex exposures encountered in indoor environments. This study shows that moisture damage and dampness observed in school buildings link to an increase in the number of different mycotoxins present at elevated levels in settled dust; however, it is evident that microbial toxins are also present in non-damaged buildings as part of the 'normal' microbial flora indoors. This extensive study lays the grounds for future attempts to measure indoor exposure to microbial toxins and to assess the health risks related to such exposure.

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Microbial secondary metabolites in school buildings inspected for moisture damage in Finland, The Netherlands and Spain

et al. 2012

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“…chartarum and A. versicolor are two commonly encountered molds in buildings with moisture problems (9,12,15,28) and are prominent mycotoxin producers. Thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay are techniques that have been applied for detecting some of these mycotoxins, e.g., in ceiling materials (8,10,15), in paper materials (19,26,29), in a gypsum board liner (2), in airborne dust (4,6), and in airborne particles in a home where an infant developed pulmonary hemorrhage (35). However, many have preferred to use mass spectrometry (MS)-based methods, especially tandem MS (MSMS), because of the high analytical specificity offered.…”

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Mass Spectrometry-Based Strategy for Direct Detection and Quantification of Some Mycotoxins Produced by Stachybotrys and Aspergillus spp. in Indoor Environments

Bloom

Bal

Nyman³

et al. 2007

Appl Environ Microbiol

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Dampness in buildings has been linked to adverse health effects, but the specific causative agents are unknown. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by molds and toxic to higher vertebrates. In this study, mass spectrometry was used to demonstrate the presence of mycotoxins predominantly produced by Aspergillus spp. and Stachybotrys spp. in buildings with either ongoing dampness or a history of water damage. Verrucarol and trichodermol, hydrolysis products of macrocyclic trichothecenes (including satratoxins), and trichodermin, predominately produced by Stachybotrys chartarum, were analyzed by gas chromatographytandem mass spectrometry, whereas sterigmatocystin (mainly produced by Aspergillus versicolor), satratoxin G, and satratoxin H were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. These mycotoxin analytes were demonstrated in 45 of 62 building material samples studied, in three of eight settled dust samples, and in five of eight cultures of airborne dust samples. This is the first report on the use of tandem mass spectrometry for demonstrating mycotoxins in dust settled on surfaces above floor level in damp buildings. The direct detection of the highly toxic sterigmatocystin and macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins in indoor environments is important due to their potential health impacts.Microorganisms are thought to be involved in health problems connected to damp buildings. However, the causative microbiological agents are unknown (22). Many molds that thrive in damp indoor environments are potent mycotoxin producers and may play a role in the reported adverse health effects ( 1,5,17,23,24,26,30). Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites, e.g., produced to give molds strategic advantages over encroaching organisms. Examples are sterigmatocystin (STRG), a carcinogenic mycotoxin produced mainly by Aspergillus versicolor; satratoxin G (SATG) and satratoxin H (SATH), which are cytotoxic mycotoxins produced by Stachybotrys chartarum; and citrinin, gliotoxin, and patulin, produced by, e.g., Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp. The latter three mycotoxins have been shown to be immunomodulatory, causing a polarization in cytokine production towards a Th2 phenotype (36), and citrinin caused depletion of intracellular glutathione at nontoxic concentrations (18). Based on spore counts, the airborne mycotoxin concentrations found in damp buildings have been estimated to be insufficient for causing adverse health effects (20). However, indoor molds may fragment into very small airborne mycotoxin-containing particles, resulting in up to a 500-fold larger exposure than assumed previously (4,11,21,32). In addition, Cho et al. (7) showed that the respiratory deposition of S. chartarum fragments was over 200-fold higher than that of spores in adults and an additional 4 to 5 times higher in infants. These aerosolized fragments could potentially also be the source of allergens (13).S. chartarum and A. versicolor are two commonly encountered molds in buildings with moisture problems (9,12,...

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“…In addition, our work has shown that these mycotoxins can be detected in the sera from persons exposed to S. chartarum within the indoor environment (Brasel et al, 2004). These results were published prior to the submission of the aforementioned manuscript (Charpin-Kadouch et al, 2006).The authors state that flooded houses were selected in their study based on the presence of S. chartarum or Chaetomium species. Both of these fungi require substrates with a water activity of >0.9 for optimal growth (Nielsen, 2003) and therefore, it would not be surprising for these organisms to be isolated together on water-saturated building materials.…”

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Letters to the Editor

Fogle¹,

Brasel

Wilson³

et al. 2007

J of Applied Toxicology

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This correspondence is in response to a paper recently published in the Journal of Applied Toxicology titled 'Mycotoxin identification in moldy dwellings' (Charpin-Kadouch et al., 2006). The authors claim their work is 'the first time direct evidence for the presence of macrocyclic trichothecenes (MCT) in moldy dwellings'. This simply is not the case. Our previous findings demonstrated the presence of MCT in the air of Stachybotrys chartarum-contaminated buildings (Brasel et al., 2005). In addition, our work has shown that these mycotoxins can be detected in the sera from persons exposed to S. chartarum within the indoor environment (Brasel et al., 2004). These results were published prior to the submission of the aforementioned manuscript (Charpin-Kadouch et al., 2006).The authors state that flooded houses were selected in their study based on the presence of S. chartarum or Chaetomium species. Both of these fungi require substrates with a water activity of >0.9 for optimal growth (Nielsen, 2003) and therefore, it would not be surprising for these organisms to be isolated together on water-saturated building materials. Chaetomium species are known to produce mycotoxins including chaetoglobosins, chaetomins, sterigmatocystins and chaetoviridins (Nielsen, 2003;Park et al., 2005); however, these species are not known producers of trichothecenes. Thus, the inclusion of houses with Chaetomium species is illogical if the objective is to detect MCT. This fact may also provide another explanation for 'the marked heterogeneity of MCT measurements' as well as the lack of correlation between moldy surface and MCT levels.The authors also state that the ELISA kit (QuantiTox Kit, EnviroLogix, Portland, Maine) used for detecting MCT contains monoclonal antibodies. This assay incorporates the use of rabbit polyclonal antibodies for MCT quantitation (Chung et al., 2003). Similar to the authors' results, we also detected MCT in control houses (Brasel et al., 2005). We hypothesized that these findings represent non-specific binding.

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Mycotoxin identification in moldy dwellings

Cited by 34 publications

References 23 publications

Microbial secondary metabolites in school buildings inspected for moisture damage in Finland, The Netherlands and Spain

Microbial secondary metabolites in school buildings inspected for moisture damage in Finland, The Netherlands and Spain

Mass Spectrometry-Based Strategy for Direct Detection and Quantification of Some Mycotoxins Produced by Stachybotrys and Aspergillus spp. in Indoor Environments

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