Mycobacterial Isolations in Captive Elephants in the United States

Payeur, Janet B.; Jarnagin, Jerald L.; Marquardt, Jürgen; Whipple, Diana L.

doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04388.x

Cited by 43 publications

(30 citation statements)

References 6 publications

(14 reference statements)

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“…For the initial descriptive epidemiologic study, 14 genotypic analysis of infecting isolates demonstrated that animals within each herd shared common strains and also that there was animal-to-animal spread of infection between California herds, whereas other herds were infected with genetically distinct strains of M. tuberculosis. 13,20 Similar findings were demonstrated for European herds as all of the animals in the Stockholm zoo were infected with an identical strain. 9 …”

supporting

confidence: 69%

Tuberculosis in Elephants—A Reemergent Disease

Maslow

Mikota

2015

Vet Pathol

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Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants has been described since ancient times. However, it was not until 1996 when infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis was identified in a herd of circus elephants that significant research into this disease began. The epidemiology and natural history of TB were unknown in elephants since there had been no comprehensive screening programs, and diagnostic techniques developed for cervidae and bovidae were of unknown value. And, while precepts of test and slaughter were the norm for cattle and deer, this was considered untenable for an endangered species. With no precedent for the treatment of TB in animals, treatment regimens for elephants were extrapolated from human protocols, which guided changes to the Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants. In the absence of diagnostic testing to confirm cure in elephants, the efficacy of these treatment regimens is only beginning to be understood as treated elephants die and are examined postmortem. However, because of pressures arising from public relations related to elephant husbandry and the added considerations of TB infection in animals (whether real or imagined), sharing of information to aid in research and treatment has been problematic. Here we review the challenges and successes of the diagnosis of tuberculosis in elephants and discuss the natural history of the disease to put the work of Landolfi et al on the immunological response to tuberculosis in elephants in perspective.

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supporting

confidence: 69%

Tuberculosis in Elephants—A Reemergent Disease

Maslow

Mikota

2015

Vet Pathol

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“…Although it has been reported that about 3% of captive elephants in the United States are infected with M. tuberculosis (22,27), recent estimates are up to 6% (S. K. Mikota, unpublished data). Since the estimation is based on the results of trunk wash culture and this method has inadequate sensitivity, the true number of elephants harboring TB is likely higher.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Tuberculosis in Elephants: Antibody Responses to Defined Antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis , Potential for Early Diagnosis, and Monitoring of Treatment

Lyashchenko

Greenwald

Esfandiari

et al. 2006

Clin Vaccine Immunol

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123

122

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Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants is a re-emerging zoonotic disease caused primarily by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Current diagnosis relies on trunk wash culture, the only officially recognized test, which has serious limitations. Innovative and efficient diagnostic methods are urgently needed. Rapid identification of infected animals is a crucial prerequisite for more effective control of TB, as early diagnosis allows timely initiation of chemotherapy. Serology has diagnostic potential, although key antigens have not been identified and optimal immunoassay formats are not established. To characterize the humoral responses in elephant TB, we tested 143 serum samples collected from 15 elephants over time. These included 48 samples from five culture-confirmed TB cases, of which four were in Asian elephants infected with M. tuberculosis and one was in an African elephant with Mycobacterium bovis. Multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA) employing a panel of 12 defined antigens was used to identify serologic correlates of active disease. ESAT-6 was the immunodominant antigen recognized in elephant TB. Serum immunoglobulin G antibodies to ESAT-6 and other proteins were detected up to 3.5 years prior to culture of M. tuberculosis from trunk washes. Antibody levels to certain antigens gradually decreased in response to antitubercular therapy, suggesting the possibility of treatment monitoring. In addition to MAPIA, serum samples were evaluated with a recently developed rapid test (RT) based on lateral flow technology (ElephantTB STAT-PAK). Similarly to MAPIA, infected elephants were identified using the RT up to 4 years prior to positive culture. These findings demonstrate the potential for TB surveillance and treatment monitoring using the RT and MAPIA, respectively.

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“…In the past decade, growing numbers of elephant TB cases due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis have been reported, presumably as a result of increased surveillance (11,16,25,28). North American populations of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants are declining, while captive breeding is historically poor.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Highly Accurate Antibody Assays for Early and Rapid Detection of Tuberculosis in African and Asian Elephants

Greenwald

Lyashchenko

Esfandiari

et al. 2009

Clin Vaccine Immunol

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102

127

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Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants is a reemerging zoonotic disease caused primarily by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Current methods for screening and diagnosis rely on trunk wash culture, which has serious limitations due to low test sensitivity, slow turnaround time, and variable sample quality. Innovative and more efficient diagnostic tools are urgently needed. We describe three novel serologic techniques, the ElephantTB Stat-Pak kit, multiantigen print immunoassay, and dual-path platform VetTB test, for rapid antibody detection in elephants. The study was performed with serum samples from 236 captive African and Asian elephants from 53 different locations in the United States and Europe. The elephants were divided into three groups based on disease status and history of exposure: (i) 26 animals with cultureconfirmed TB due to M. tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis, (ii) 63 exposed elephants from known-infected herds that had never produced a culture-positive result from trunk wash samples, and (iii) 147 elephants without clinical symptoms suggestive of TB, with consistently negative trunk wash culture results, and with no history of potential exposure to TB in the past 5 years. Elephants with culture-confirmed TB and a proportion of exposed but trunk wash culture-negative elephants produced robust antibody responses to multiple antigens of M. tuberculosis, with seroconversions detectable years before TB-positive cultures were obtained from trunk wash specimens. ESAT-6 and CFP10 proteins were immunodominant antigens recognized by elephant antibodies during disease. The serologic assays demonstrated 100% sensitivity and 95 to 100% specificity. Rapid and accurate antibody tests to identify infected elephants will likely allow earlier and more efficient treatment, thus limiting transmission of infection to other susceptible animals and to humans.

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Mycobacterial Isolations in Captive Elephants in the United States

Cited by 43 publications

References 6 publications

Tuberculosis in Elephants—A Reemergent Disease

Tuberculosis in Elephants—A Reemergent Disease

Tuberculosis in Elephants: Antibody Responses to Defined Antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis , Potential for Early Diagnosis, and Monitoring of Treatment

Highly Accurate Antibody Assays for Early and Rapid Detection of Tuberculosis in African and Asian Elephants

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