Muscles Lost in Our Adult Primate Ancestors Still Imprint in Us: on Muscle Evolution, Development, Variations, and Pathologies

Boyle, Eve K.; Mahon, Vondel S. E.; Diogo, Rui

doi:10.1007/s40610-020-00128-x

Cited by 19 publications

(18 citation statements)

References 73 publications

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“…The gastrocnemius-soleus group gradually spreads from its original lateral position towards the medial side of the leg to attain the tibial attachment, and the two heads of the GM develop during the second half of the second month, the medial head attaining its attachment later than the lateral [23,24]. The PM seems to split off at a comparatively late stage from the lateral head of the GM [23,24].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In order to understand the differences in the structure of such a complex tendon, it is necessary to understand the basics of embryology. In an 11 mm embryo the common flexor mass begins to show signs of differentiation into the muscle rudiments [23,24]. In a 14 mm embryo the two muscle groups are fairly distinct, a superficial, proximolateral group for the GM SM, and PM, and a deep, more medial group for the flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus and popliteus, and tibialis posterior [23,24].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In an 11 mm embryo the common flexor mass begins to show signs of differentiation into the muscle rudiments [23,24]. In a 14 mm embryo the two muscle groups are fairly distinct, a superficial, proximolateral group for the GM SM, and PM, and a deep, more medial group for the flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus and popliteus, and tibialis posterior [23,24]. The gastrocnemius group is connected with the blastema of the calcaneus and the two long flexor muscles with the flat aponeurotic "foot-plate" from which tendons extend to the blastema of the digits [23,24].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In a 14 mm embryo the two muscle groups are fairly distinct, a superficial, proximolateral group for the GM SM, and PM, and a deep, more medial group for the flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus and popliteus, and tibialis posterior [23,24]. The gastrocnemius group is connected with the blastema of the calcaneus and the two long flexor muscles with the flat aponeurotic "foot-plate" from which tendons extend to the blastema of the digits [23,24]. The gastrocnemius-soleus group gradually spreads from its original lateral position towards the medial side of the leg to attain the tibial attachment, and the two heads of the GM develop during the second half of the second month, the medial head attaining its attachment later than the lateral [23,24].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The gastrocnemius group is connected with the blastema of the calcaneus and the two long flexor muscles with the flat aponeurotic "foot-plate" from which tendons extend to the blastema of the digits [23,24]. The gastrocnemius-soleus group gradually spreads from its original lateral position towards the medial side of the leg to attain the tibial attachment, and the two heads of the GM develop during the second half of the second month, the medial head attaining its attachment later than the lateral [23,24]. The PM seems to split off at a comparatively late stage from the lateral head of the GM [23,24].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Morphometric profile in foetuses and evolution of Achilles tendon

2022

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Background: The Achilles tendon (AT) develops from the merge of the tendinous part of the gastrocnemius (GM) and soleus (SM) muscles. The AT is the structural base for the biomechanical work of the ankle joint. Understanding morphometry of the AT is crucial due to the tendon vulnerability to rupture and damage which requires further surgical repair and management. Despite its clinical significance, data concerns measurements of the AT in human fetuses are scare. The aim of our study was to assess the AT, GM and SM morphometry in human fetuses. Materials and methods: Thirty-seven spontaneously-aborted human fetuses (17 male, 20 female) aged 18-38 weeks of gestation were examined. The morphometry of the GM, SM and AT were evaluated. Results: No significant correlation between sex or side and size of the AT in human fetuses was observed. The only significant correlation was between sex and the length of the tendon of the SM, in 3 rd trimester it was longer in male than in female. In 2 nd trimester the SM muscle to tendon ratio was higher in female than in male. Conclusions: There was no significant correlation between sex or side in size of the AT in human fetuses, probably due to scant muscle load during prenatal period.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Morphometric profile in foetuses and evolution of Achilles tendon

2022

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The Visible Ape Project: A free, comprehensive, web‐based anatomical atlas for scientists and veterinarians designed to raise public awareness about apes

Barger

Martin

Boyle

et al. 2021

Evolutionary Anthropology

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The Visible Ape Project (VAP) is a free online platform providing unprecedented access to a suite of resources designed to comprehensively illustrate and educate about the anatomy of our closest relatives, the apes. It contains photographs, magnetic resonance images, and computed tomography scans, as well as three‐dimensional models that can be manipulated to explore homologies and variations in soft and hard tissues in hylobatids, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos. Based at Howard University, a historically black university, it aims to reach communities underrepresented in anthropology and evolutionary biology, providing educational materials appropriate for K‐12 and college classrooms in both English and Spanish. Accordingly, VAP incorporates outreach activities to disseminate science and promote awareness of apes, forming partnerships with veterinarians and conservationists in Africa and Asia. In this paper, we present an introduction to the website to illustrate how this accessible, evolving resource can support evolutionary anthropology and related disciplines.

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