Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C): Implications for long COVID

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the coronavirus 2 of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) has significantly affected people around the world, leading to substantial morbidity and mortality. Although the pandemic has affected people of all ages, there is increasing evidence that children are less susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection and are more likely to experience milder symptoms than adults. However, children with COVID-19 can still develop serious complications, such as multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C). This narrative review of the literature provides an overview of the epidemiology and immune pathology of SARS-CoV-2 infection and MIS-C in children. The review also examines the genetics of COVID-19 and MIS-C in children, including the genetic factors that can influence the susceptibility and severity of the diseases and their implications for personalized medicine and vaccination strategies. By examining current evidence and insights from the literature, this review aims to contribute to the development of effective prevention and treatment strategies for COVID-19, MIS-C, and long COVID syndromes in children.

Differential Inflammatory Responses in Adult and Pediatric COVID-19 Patients: Implications for Long-Term Consequences and Anti-Inflammatory Treatment

“…We hypothesize that a number of MMPs were not upregulated in our pediatric cohort, because of a milder course of infection, compared with the adult group. Our findings align with a broader understanding of age-related differences in COVID-19 severity, encompassing variations in innate and adaptive immune responses, endothelial function, and clotting mechanisms [ 16 , 17 ]. Children, benefiting from a more robust and rapid innate immune response, might efficiently control the virus, while adults can experience dysregulated responses, leading to heightened inflammation and tissue damage [ 11 ].…”

The Interplay Between Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children, Interleukin 6, Microbiome, and Gut Barrier Integrity

“…It involves inflammation in various organs, including the brain, skin, eyes, heart, lungs, kidneys, and the gastrointestinal tract. Although it can be life-threatening, the majority of children recover with medical attention [25,27,28].…”

“…Constant fever, vomiting, diarrhea, skin irritation, abdominal pain, and, in severe cases, hypotension and shock are the hallmarks of MIS-C [25][26][27] One of the most common MIS-C symptoms is gastrointestinal distress, raising the possibility that the GM may act as both a local and systemic inflammatory modulator [39,40].…”

Incidence and Nature of Short-Term Adverse Events following COVID-19 Second Boosters: Insights from Taiwan’s Universal Vaccination Strategy

“…These reports significantly impact public willingness to receive vaccinations, consequently affecting vaccination rates [ 7 , 19 , 20 ]. Of particular concern are the severe adverse events associated with booster vaccines, such as vaccine-induced myocarditis and pericarditis, multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), and multisystem inflammatory syndrome in adults (MIS-A) [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ]. The question of whether the incidence and severity of side effects increase with additional doses is of utmost importance and urgently requires detailed clinical reports to understand the current situation [ 28 ].…”