Multiple pathways towards achieving a living income for different types of smallholder tree-crop commodity farmers

Abstract

Many sources indicate that smallholder tree-crop commodity farmers are poor, but there is a paucity of data on how many of them are poor and the depth of poverty. The living income concept establishes the net annual income required for a household in a place to afford a decent standard of living. Based on datasets on smallholder cocoa and tea farmers in Ghana, Ivory Coast and Kenya and literature, we conclude that a large proportion of such farmers do not have the potential to earn a living income based on their current situation. Because these farmers typically cultivate small farm sizes and have low capacity to invest and to diversify, there are no silver bullets to move them out of poverty. We present an assessment approach that results in insights into which interventions can be effective in improving the livelihoods of different types of farmers. While it is morally imperative that all households living in poverty are supported to earn a living income, the assessment approach and literature indicate that focussing on short- to medium-term interventions for households with a low likelihood of generating a living income could be: improving food security and health, finding off-farm and alternative employment, and social assistance programmes. In the long term, land governance policies could address land fragmentation and secure rights. Achieving living incomes based on smallholder commodity production requires more discussion and engagement with farmers and their household members and within their communities, coordination between all involved stakeholders, sharing lessons learnt and data.

Understanding the socio-economic and environmental impacts of Ghana's change in economic status on the upstream cocoa supply chain

“…The Ministry of Finance announces the new price at the commencement of a new crop season (Abubakar, RM&E (COCOBOD), pers. communic., 2016, as cited in Waarts et al. , 2019) and farmers and other key stakeholders continue their upstream CSC activities.…”

“…These ecological zones (i.e., the shaded part of Figure 1) include the Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Volta and Western regions (refer to Abubakar, RM&E (COCOBOD), pers. communic., 2016, cited in Waarts et al. , 2019).…”

“…The WCF's social dimension of sustainability may be understood as healthy, thriving cocoa farmer households and communities working under naturally acceptable conditions and being granted equal opportunities. The social side also seeks to empower farmers to make rational decisions about their welfare, farms and produce (see Waarts et al. , 2019) without any discrimination.…”

Revisiting food security in 2021: an overview of the past year

“…Another recurrent theme addresses the complexity of interlinkages between poverty and food insecurity. Waarts et al ( 2021 ) apply the living income concept to smallholder cocoa and tea farmers in Ghana, Ivory Coast and Kenya, and present an assessment approach to identify which interventions can be effective in improving farmers’ livelihoods. Loibl et al ( 2021 ) show how financial stressors are increase food insecurity among adults aged 65 years and more in the United Kingdom, Germany, and the Netherlands.…”

Regional disparities in impacts of climate extremes require targeted adaptation of Fairtrade supply chains

“…Bananas, cocoa, coffee, and tea are among the main tropical agricultural commodities 30,31 and are crucial for the livelihoods of millions of smallholders across the globe. 32 They are grown in tropical and subtropical regions, where pronounced climate change impacts have been taking place. 3,33,34 Being mainly located in rural, poor, and less developed areas, producers of such crops (mostly smallholders) have limited adaptive capacities and are among the most vulnerable to climate change.…”