Multilingualism in older age: A research agenda from the cognitive perspective

Abstract

Calls to diversify second language acquisition (SLA) (e.g., Ortega, 2013) have led to increased interest in multilingualism and inclusion of groups less represented in samples of university students, such as individuals at older ages. Nevertheless, we still have more questions than we do answers. This article outlines a research agenda targeting older adult language learning and multilinguals at older ages, both in and beyond the classroom. Since a key difference between young and older adults is cognitive aging, I follow a cognitive approach, focusing on how individual differences in cognition may affect language and vice versa, and how relevant sociocultural factors add to the interplay between language and cognition. Notably, this is not always a story of decline and deficits, but instead of both strengths and weaknesses that differ from those of young adults.

Sampling Bias and the Problem of Generalizability in Applied Linguistics

“…In this position paper, we explore to what extent our own field of Applied Linguistics suffers from biased sampling and what the consequences of such skewed sampling may be. We do this in full recognition that we are not alone in raising concerns about the demographics of the samples used in our field (e.g., Bigelow & Tarone, 2004;Cox, 2019;Kormos & Sáfár, 2008;Mackey & Sachs, 2012;Ortega, 2005Ortega, , 2019Pot, Keijzer, & de Bot, 2018;Tarone & Bigelow, 2005), that we cannot do justice to all these voices within the scope of this paper, and in full recognition of the fact that we ourselves are part of the problem in that we rely on academic samples as much as anyone else. We do think it is important to keep this conversation on the front burner in Applied Linguistics, and we intend to do so in this paper by sketching just how skewed sampling currently is and how problematic this can be.…”

A critical review of research relating to the learning, use and effects of additional and multiple languages in later life

“…A crucial component of the future agenda for this area proposed by Mackey and Sachs (2012) concerns the need to replicate the intervention studies referred to above with research involving larger sample sizes and different methodologies. Such an extended replication might enable us to obtain a clearer picture of cognitive capacities that vary as a function of age but which are also influenced by the extent to which intellectually stimulating activities are included in an individual's lifestyle (Cox, 2019).…”

“…The BA also depends on older adult multilingual profiles (Cox, 2019). For instance, it has been suggested that the BA sometimes reported in non-linguistic domains is a finding circumscribed by both very specific and very unclear situations, and that it does not extend IN GENERAL to lifelong bilingual third-agers or to neo-bilingual third-agers (see e.g.…”

“…These groups feel immense societal pressure to acculturate and also experience the draw of the economic advantages deriving from mastery of the host country's language. Impediments evident in this connection include lack of time on the part of migrants to commit to language learning, diversity of learner backgrounds, few opportunities to communicate in the target language, the fact that migrants’ networks may be L1-based, and the phenomenon of social isolation (see Gardner, 2002; Treas & Mazumdar, 2002; Warnes & Williams, 2006; Cox, 2019). Finally, the growth of mobility across the world has created the desideratum for travellers and migrants to communicate comfortably in languages not well known to them – for which the present-day third-age generation is generally ill-equipped (Gabrys-Barker, 2018).…”

Ethnospecific Bilingual Realities In The Text: Types And Function

“…Bilingualism is linked with the problem of formation of linguistic consciousness of the author who speaks two languages and assimilates linguistic pictures of the world. Belyanin (2003) and Cox (2019) classified bilingualism according to the age at which the acquisition of a second language occurs, distinguish between early and late bilingualism. Burykin (2000) and Mok and Morris (2012) defined bilingualism as speaking languages conflicting with each other ... reflecting certain discrepancies.…”