“…Despite this major focus on GSS, research has also highlighted that AST may serve as a metatheory (Bostrom, Gupta, & Thomas, 2009) for understanding other complex information systems, such as LMS (Tennant et al, 2014) or massive open online courses (MOOCs) (Whitaker, New, & Ireland, 2016) that are applied in sociotechnical systems. Though in the past usually used on a group level, AST serves as a multilevel theory (Bélanger, Cefaratti, Carte, & Markham, 2014), and researchers have applied it particularly in a TML context on an individual level to understand how individuals use IT in their learning process (Gupta & Bostrom, 2013;Hardin, Looney, & Fuller, 2014). The appropriation process is a central construct in the learning process that complements content acquisition (Gupta & Bostrom, 2013).…”