Multilevel ecological analysis of the predictors of spanking across 65 countries

Ward, Kaitlin P.; Grogan‐Kaylor, Andrew; Pace, Garrett T.; Cuartas, Jorge; Lee, Shawna

doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-046075

Cited by 16 publications

(21 citation statements)

References 37 publications

(45 reference statements)

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“…For instance, understanding children’s cues is a challenge caregivers face in infancy, before children develop language. This perspective is consistent with evidence on the drivers of VAC in Colombia, which indicates that the risk of experiencing VAC varies with children’s age [ 12 , 61 ].…”

Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 89%

“…Global research, including reviews [ 7 , 59 , 60 ] and cross-cultural studies [ 61 , 62 ], showed that multiple factors at the individual, family, community, and society levels predict VAC. Some of these factors include caregivers’ beliefs that children need physical punishment to be raised properly, caregivers’ mental health and self-regulation skills, caregivers’ own exposure to physical punishment in their childhood, low caregiver education, lower socioeconomic status, living in a violent context, living in rural vs. urban areas, and gender inequity, among others.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Some of these factors include caregivers’ beliefs that children need physical punishment to be raised properly, caregivers’ mental health and self-regulation skills, caregivers’ own exposure to physical punishment in their childhood, low caregiver education, lower socioeconomic status, living in a violent context, living in rural vs. urban areas, and gender inequity, among others. Several studies also conclude that children aged 3–5 years old are at higher risk of experiencing physical punishment relative to younger children, and there are mixed findings related to sex-related differences [ 59 , 61 ].…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 2 more Smart Citations

The Apapacho Violence Prevention Parenting Program: Conceptual Foundations and Pathways to Scale

Cuartas

Baker‐Henningham²,

Cepeda³

et al. 2022

IJERPH

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Violence against children (VAC) is a major global issue with long-lasting negative consequences on individuals and societies. The present study presents a review of the literature on drivers of VAC and the core components of evidence-based violence prevention programs. Moreover, it analyzes the existing services and social infrastructure in Colombia to rigorously inform the design of the Apapacho violence prevention parenting program for families with children younger than five targeted toward Colombia. Findings indicate that (1) VAC in Colombia is a multidimensional issue with roots at the individual, family, community, and society levels, (2) evidence-based violence prevention programs share a common set of content and delivery strategies that could inform the components of the Apapacho program, and (3) there is an urgent need for scalable and flexible violence prevention programs for families with young children in Colombia. Considering existing evidence, the Apapacho violence prevention parenting program will be designed using ecological, developmental, and neuroscience-informed perspectives. This article concludes by presenting the initial components of the theory of change and discussing future directions for the design of the Apapacho program and other violence prevention interventions in LMICs.

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Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 89%

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

The Apapacho Violence Prevention Parenting Program: Conceptual Foundations and Pathways to Scale

Cuartas

Baker‐Henningham²,

Cepeda³

et al. 2022

IJERPH

Self Cite

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“…A key belief among mothers at high risk for using punishment is that physical punishment is necessary and instrumental for achieving parental goals [ 33 ]. Furthermore, data from 65 countries found that the caregiver’s belief that physical punishment was needed for a child to be raised properly was associated with the largest odds of spanking (Odds Ratio = 2.55, p < 0.001) [ 34 ]. Throughout the literature, supportive attitudes toward physical punishment are consistently associated with an increased likelihood of its use [ 30 – 32 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Associations between spanking beliefs and reported spanking among adolescents-parent/caregiver dyads in a Canadian sample

et al. 2022

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Background Research consistently demonstrates that physical punishment of children including “spanking” is harmful. Interest in effective prevention is growing rapidly. The aim of the current study is to examine spanking beliefs among adolescents and parents in relation to reports of spanking that the adolescents experienced before 11 years of age. Methods Data were drawn from Wave 1 of a study conducted in 2017–2018 that included adolescents (14–17 years old) and one of their parents/caregivers from Manitoba, Canada (n = 1000 pairs). The study objectives were to examine: 1) spanking beliefs of adolescents and their parents; 2) the correlation between parent and adolescent spanking beliefs; 3) whether parents perceive the words “spank” vs. “hit” differently using intraclass correlation; 4) the association between parents’ beliefs about spanking and parent- and adolescent-reported use of it; and 5) the relationship between sociodemographic variables and spanking. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Spearman’s correlation, intraclass correlation, and binary and multinomial logistic regression analyses. Results The prevalence of adolescent-reported and parents’-reported spanking were 46.0% and 39.6%, respectively. The proportions agreeing that spanking is a normal part of parenting were similar among adolescents (22.0%) and parents (18.5%), and were moderately correlated (intraclass correlation = 0.38, SE = 0.038). More than five times as many parents believed that “spanking” is necessary (19.5%) than believed that “hitting” is necessary (3.5%). Parents’ positive spanking beliefs were associated with increased likelihood of adolescent- and parent-reported spanking. Few significant associations were found between sociodemographic variables and parent-reported or adolescent-reported spanking. Conclusions Adolescents’ spanking beliefs are related to their parents’ spanking beliefs, suggesting that they are transmitted across generations. Public education and law reform are needed to decrease the normalization and perceived necessity of spanking in child-rearing. Efforts should include improving the understanding that spanking is a form of violence against children. With only a few significant differences noted between sociodemographic variables and parent- and adolescent- reported spanking and the prevalent use of spanking across all sociodemographic variable categories, it may be useful to develop universal approaches to awareness-raising and implementation of education strategies in Canada.

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“…One barrier to understanding co-occurrence in LMICs is that most high quality, national data on violent discipline come from UNICEF-supported Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) [ 28 ], which do not usually measure IPV prevalence. As a result, the growing number of multi-country analyses of MICS data have not included child exposure to IPV as a potential risk factor in research on violent discipline [ 29 – 36 ]. Conversely, most national surveys that measure IPV against women do not measure child discipline, with some exceptions, including the surveys in this study.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Correlates of co-occurring physical child punishment and physical intimate partner violence in Colombia, Mexico and Peru

Bott

Ruiz-Celis

Mendoza³

et al. 2022

BMC Public Health

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Background Violent discipline of children and intimate partner violence (IPV) against women are global public health and human rights problems. To address calls for more evidence on intersections, this study aimed to expand knowledge about correlates of physical child punishment, physical IPV against women and their co-occurrence (both) in the same household. Methods Using national, population-based survey datasets from Colombia, Mexico and Peru, multinomial logistic regressions examined correlates of three mutually exclusive patterns of violence in the household: physical child punishment (only), physical IPV ever (only) and co-occurrence (both), each compared with no violence, after adjusting for other factors. Logistic regression was used to analyse odds ratios of physical child punishment in households affected by IPV past year and before past year compared with never, after adjusting for other factors. Results In all countries, adjusted odds ratios (aOR) of co-occurrence were significantly higher among women with lower education, more than one child, a child aged 2–5, a partner who tried to socially isolate her, and a history of childhood violence (caregiver violence and/or IPV exposure). They were significantly lower among women who reported collaborative partnerships (joint decision-making and/or shared chores). Co-occurrence was also significantly correlated with a history of child marriage/early motherhood in Colombia and Mexico, partner’s excess drinking in Mexico and Peru, agreement that physical child punishment was necessary in Peru and partner’s history of childhood violence in Colombia and Mexico. Evidence of shared risk factors was strongest for social isolation and caregiver histories of childhood violence and of shared protective factors for collaborative partnership dynamics. In all countries, associations between physical child punishment and physical IPV remained significant after adjusting for other factors, suggesting that correlations could not be explained by shared risk factors alone. Conclusions These findings are consistent with several theories relevant for violence prevention: 1) more collaborative, gender equitable partnerships may protect both children and women from violence; 2) violence between intimate partners may ‘spill over’ into violence against children (as correlations could not be explained by shared risk factors alone); and 3) there appears to be strong evidence of intergenerational transmission of violence.

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Multilevel ecological analysis of the predictors of spanking across 65 countries

Cited by 16 publications

References 37 publications

The Apapacho Violence Prevention Parenting Program: Conceptual Foundations and Pathways to Scale

The Apapacho Violence Prevention Parenting Program: Conceptual Foundations and Pathways to Scale

Associations between spanking beliefs and reported spanking among adolescents-parent/caregiver dyads in a Canadian sample

Correlates of co-occurring physical child punishment and physical intimate partner violence in Colombia, Mexico and Peru

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