Motivation matters: Development and validation of the Motivation for Solitude Scale – Short Form (MSS‐SF)

Abstract

Introduction: Motivation is an overlooked but crucial factor in determining whether solitude is psychologically beneficial or risky. This paper describes the development and validation of the Motivation for Solitude Scale -Short-Form (MSS-SF), a measure grounded in Self-Determination Theory that differentiates between intrinsic versus extrinsic motivations for solitude. Methods: Emerging adult (N = 803) and adolescent (N = 176) participants were recruited in four successive samples from the United States for the purposes of scale development and validation. Participants completed an on-line survey that included the MSS-SF and various well-being and personality measures.Results & conclusions: Confirmatory Factor Analyses resulted in a two-factor solution, selfdetermined solitude (SDS) and not self-determined solitude (NSDS), and showed the MSS-SF to be reliable with adolescents and emerging adults, with satisfactory convergent and discriminant validity. Engaging in solitude for extrinsic, not self-determined reasons was associated with loneliness, social anxiety, and depressive symptomatology; in contrast, solitude chosen for intrinsic, self-determined reasons was positively correlated with well-being, for emerging adults in particular. The MSS-SF goes beyond preference for solitude to distinguish two distinctly different motivations for solitude, and in so doing, allows researchers to better understand the affordances and risks of being alone for adolescents and emerging adults.The phenomenon of being alone is complex. One's aloneness can be experienced as isolation, loneliness, or solitude, and these are distinct constructs. Isolation is enforced solitude, sometimes used as a means of punishment such as solitary confinement, and is generally not a constructive experience of aloneness (Galanaki, 2005; Storr, 1988). Whereas isolation is an objective state of being separate from others, loneliness is subjective isolation, defined in the literature as a discrepancy between one's desired versus actual emotional or social relationships (Perlman & Peplau, 1982;Weiss, 1973). In contrast, solitude is defined as positive aloneness (Rubenstein & Shaver, 1982), "the constructive use of time alone," (Galanaki, 2013, p. 80), generally used for the purpose of engaging in intrinsically motivated activities (Moustakas, 1972). Despite the conceptual distinctions between these three states of being alone, research examining solitude has often conflated solitude with loneliness or isolation (Dahlberg, 2007;Gizatullina et al., 2016), or attributed the preference for solitude to social anxiety or shyness (Cheek & Buss, 1981;Leary, 1983), rather than to any positive or constructive motivation. This attribution contradicts theories positing solitude as a basic human need that spurs healthy psycholo-

Motivation and preference in isolation: a test of their different influences on responses to self-isolation during the COVID-19 outbreak

“…Though preference and motivation for solitude show different patterns of influence on ill-being, those who prefer solitude often also report more autonomous motivation for it [1,10,12]. However, selfisolation is an occasion in which one's longstanding preference to be alone versus in the company of others, and one's current motivations to be alone, should be more strongly differentiated.…”

“…Based in SDT, less autonomous or self-driven motivation for solitude, and more controlled motivation reflecting pressure and choicelessness, relate to feeling lonely when alone (Nguyen et al [1] Study 4). Further, endorsing autonomous reasons for spending time alone correlates negatively with ill-being outcomes like depression, loneliness and anxiety [10]. However, these studies have conflated enjoying being alone with finding value in the activity, because both are theorized to comprise autonomous motivation.…”

Child and Adolescent Time Use: A Cross‐National Study

“…Children's “solitary time” has different well‐being effects depending on personal characteristics, environments, and the nature of this time. On the one hand, teenagers' solo time can strengthen their individual autonomy or self‐reflection, with recent evidence showing that solitude chosen for intrinsic and self‐determined reasons promotes teenagers' well‐being (Thomas & Azmitia, ). On the other hand, when children spend “too much” time alone, the risks of suffering from well‐being problems increase (i.e., mental health problems, depression symptoms, loneliness; Larson, ; Nguyen, Ryan, & Deci, ).…”

Emotion Dynamics of Solitude: How Spending Time Alone Affects the Way We Experience and Manage Affect

“…Moving away from extraversion, we can further narrow in on attitudes toward solitude (e.g., Burger, 1995;Cramer & Lake, 1998;Goossens, 2014;Thomas & Azmitia, 2019). Some individuals are intrinsically motivated to spend time alone and, as a result, tend to enjoy solitary experiences and may reap additional benefits from being alone (Leary et al, 2003;Nguyen et al, 2019).…”

“…More recently, there has been a focus on self-determined solitude (Chua & Koestner, 2008;Thomas & Azmitia, 2019), which captures intrinsic motivations for solitude. Thomas and Azmitia (2019) found that self-determined solitude was positively associated with well-being and not associated with loneliness, social anxiety, or depression among emerging adults.…”