Mothers’ Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Socialization of Transracially Adopted Asian Children*

Abstract

This study examined maternal and child predictors of White mothers' cultural socialization/pluralism and preparation for bias of Chinese and Korean adopted children in families participating in the Northeast-Northwest Collaborative Adoption Project. Mother's psychological connection to Asian Americans, but not White identity, and children's age predicted cultural socialization/pluralism and preparation for bias. Birth country was related to cultural socialization/pluralism but not preparation for bias. Cultural socialization/pluralism was related to fewer externalizing problems but not to internalizing problems. Preparation for bias was not related to behavioral problems. The implications of these findings are summarized in terms of interventions aimed at increasing mothers' connections to Asian American communities or individuals, providing Korean cultural information to parents of Korean adoptees, and the timing of interventions.

Predictors of White Adoptive Parents' Cultural and Racial Socialization Behaviors With Their Asian Adopted Children

“…A child's status as an adoptee was "alone… not likely to result in the child's negative identity development" (Yoon, 2001, 76). Furthermore, another study indicated that transracial, international adoptees who engaged in cultural socialization were less likely to have delinquent behaviors (Johnston, Swim, Saltsman, Deater-Deckard, & Petrill, 2007). Exposure to cultural activities also increased transracial adoptive children's developmental understanding of culture and race (Lee & Quintana, 2005).…”

“…One recent study looked at several parent characteristics, specifically parents' psychological connection to Asian Americans and connection to White identity (Johnston, Swim, Saltsman, DeaterDeckard, & Petrill, 2007). Parents who felt more connected to Asian Americans, but not White identity, were more likely to engage in cultural and racial socialization with their children (Johnston et al, 2007). White identity was measured by a projective measure of feelings of closeness to Whites.…”

“…Some of these terms combine both cultural and racial socialization into one measure, for example cultural competence (Vonk, 2001) and bicultural socialization (Thomas & Tessler, 2007). Others separate cultural and racial socialization into two distinct behaviors -for example, enculturation and racialization (Lee, Grotevant, Hellerstedt, Gunnar, & The Minnesota International Adoption Project Team, 2006), or socialization/pluralism and preparation for bias (Johnston et al, 2007). This study operationalized the two types of socialization as distinct and used the terms cultural socialization and racial socialization to reflect the two constructs.…”

“…Cultural and racial socialization has been shown to be critical in the development of a positive identity and self-esteem in international, transracial adoptees (Johnston, Swim, Saltsman, Deater-Deckard, & Petrill, 2007;Mohanty, Keoske, & Sales, 2007;Yoon, 2001). Cultural socialization refers to teaching children about their birth culture, and transmitting cultural values, behaviors, and traditions of the country of origin (Lee, 2003).…”

“…Currently, about sixty percent of the children being adopted into White families are of Asian origin, specifically South Korean, Chinese, and Vietnamese (Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute, 2008). Studying cultural and racial socialization in transracial adoptive families is important to foster healthy adjustment for all members of the family (Johnston, Swim, Saltsman, Deater-Deckard, & Petrill, 2007;Mohanty, Keoske, & Sales, 2007;Yoon, 2001). …”