“…The gate lengths of metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors have been successfully reduced to below 5 nm to meet the needs of big data, cloud computing, mobile devices, self-driving electric vehicles, and artificial intelligence applications (i.e., the Fourth Industrial Revolution). − Short-channel effects such as punch-through, gate-leakage current ( I g ), channel-length modulation, drain-induced barrier reduction, and threshold voltage ( V th ) roll-off must be eliminated to further reduce the scale of transistor features during the pursuit of improvements in power, performance, area, and cost metrics. , High- k gate dielectrics can resolve I g problems, and the silicon-on-insulator technology eliminates the punch-through effects that result from the substrate-leakage current. Furthermore, short-channel effects are less significant in three-dimensional structures such as fin, multi-gate, gate-all-around, and nanosheet field-effect transistors, where the gate control is substantially improved.…”