Moral frameworks of commercial surrogacy within the US, India and Russia

Abstract

In this paper, we draw on three ethnographic studies of surrogacy we carried out separately in different contexts: the western US state of California, the south Indian state of Karnataka, and the western Russian metropolis of St Petersburg. In our interviews with surrogate mothers, intended parents, and surrogacy professionals, we traced the meanings and ideologies through which they understood the clinical labour of surrogacy. We found that in the US, interviewed surrogates, intended parents and professionals understood surrogacy as an exchange of both gifts and commodities, where gift-giving, reciprocity, and relatedness between surrogates and intended parents were the major tropes. In India, differing narratives of surrogacy were offered by its different parties: whilst professionals and intended parents framed it as a win-win exchange with an emphasis on the economic side, the interviewed surrogate mothers talked about surrogacy as creative labour of giving life. In Russia, approaches to surrogacy among the interviewed surrogate mothers, professionals and intended parents overlapped in framing it as work and a businesslike commodity exchange. We suggest these three different ways of ethical reasoning about the clinical labour of surrogacy, including justifications of women’s incorporation into this labour, were situated in local moral frameworks. We name them “repro-regional moral frameworks”, inspired by earlier work on moral frameworks as well as on reproductive nationalisms and transnational reproduction. Building on these findings, we argue that any international or global regulation of surrogacy, or indeed any moral stance on it, needs to take these local differences into account.

“Only My Husband and My Doctor Know. And You, Girls”: Online Discussions of Stigma Coping Strategies for Russian Surrogate Mothers

“…The communication among the SMs studied here reveals the efforts expended by the SMs in protecting what they perceive as a businesslike exchange. Although, in the post-Soviet context, SMs, professionals, and intended parents frame surrogacy work simply as a job [ 16 ], their immediate environment perceives it as a highly stigmatized occupation. By analyzing the SMs support group’s online communication, this study reveals the way they use the online support group to share and discuss strategies to cope with it.…”

“…Practically, our study indicates that any international or global regulation of surrogacy needs to take the local moral frameworks towards surrogacy into account [ 16 , 65 ]. Thus, for example, if there existed an international policy framework or structure when planning any initiative toward surrogacy regulations [ 16 , 65 , 66 , 67 ], in addition to policies toward exploitation prevention and fair compensation of the SMs, the social consequences resulting from becoming an SM need to be taken into consideration.…”

“…Practically, our study indicates that any international or global regulation of surrogacy needs to take the local moral frameworks towards surrogacy into account [ 16 , 65 ]. Thus, for example, if there existed an international policy framework or structure when planning any initiative toward surrogacy regulations [ 16 , 65 , 66 , 67 ], in addition to policies toward exploitation prevention and fair compensation of the SMs, the social consequences resulting from becoming an SM need to be taken into consideration. Furthermore, our findings indicate that beyond ensuring the legal status of SMs, surrogacy regulations must ensure the surrogacy industry (e.g., surrogacy agencies) honors its obligation to provide the SM with pre- and post-surrogacy mental health support.…”

“…The context of surrogate motherhood in Russia is unique in the sense that, unlike Western and Asian surrogate mothers (SMs), post-Soviet SMs construct surrogacy as a kind of paid work [ 3 , 16 ]. Moreover, whereas in other countries, SMs are perceived as altruistic by helping childless couples [ 17 , 18 ], recent research about stigma among Russian surrogates revealed that Russian SMs experience the stigma of being labeled as bad mothers, bad wives, pathetic losers, and greedy women [ 3 , 19 ].…”

Surrogacy in India: ethics versus incentive

“…Further, this issue become more dominating for the surrogate with inability to communicate in English or able to read and understand the consent form, unaware concerning the rights of the surrogate. 3 The technology is gripping its roots within the country resulting in taking away the lens of idealism from the mind of law makers. More legal problems raised and by passing the law government tried to address the legal problems faced by the victims but all the efforts failed.…”