“…It is clear that greater levels of enforcement by states, NGOs or private sector operators may produce 'quick wins' in the short term. However, the danger is that such heavy handed tactics will be counter-productive and alienate local communities in the longer term (Hutton, Adams and Murombedzi, 2005; Duffy forthcoming; Roe et al 2010;Neumann 2004;Butt, 2012;Lunstrum, 2013;Peluso, 1993;Dressler at al, 2010). Further, in the case of the rhino wars in the Zambezi Valley in the 1990s, local communities claimed they were 'caught in the crossfire' between organised poachers and parks agencies; they were in the area collecting grass, wild food plants or hunting small game and were mistaken for commercial rhino hunters (Duffy, 2010: 103;Bonner, 1993); in the Liwonde National park in Malawi, South African private military company personnel were used to train the park rangers; and later parks staff were implicated in over 300 deaths, 325 disappearances, 250 rapes and numerous instances of torture between 1998-2000 in the Liwonde National Park alone (Neumann, 2004: 830).…”