17 1.1. Background to the development of plastics 17 1.2. Production of plastics, biodegradable plastics, and waste 20 1.3. Background to biodegradable plastics 21 1.4. The position of biodegradable plastics in waste management systems 22 1.5. EU policy landscape 24 1.6. Policy question CHAPTER : SETTING THE SCENE 27 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2 Definitions of plastics and polymers 34 2.3 Definition of 'plastic biodegradation' 38 2.4 Definition of 'open environment' 40 2.5 Steps involved in plastic biodegradation 44 2.6 Factors controlling plastic biodegradation in the open environment CHAPTER : APPLICATIONS OF BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS: CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO ENVIRONMENTS 58 3.1. Applications of plastic products in relation to the waste hierarchy -where do biodegradables fit? 61 3.2. The influence of the receiving environments on the benefits of biodegradable plastics 65 3.3. Examples of applications in which the use of biodegradable plastics may bring benefit 70 3.4. Applications where benefits are less clear 71 3.5. The importance of labelling and appropriate user information 72 3.6. The importance of legislation and enforcement CHAPTER : TESTING, STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATIONS 75 4.1 Introduction 78 4.2 Testing scheme and requirements 89 4.3 Criteria for the selection of tests and modelling 91 4.4 Standardisation 102 4.5 Certification 106 4.6 Communication and labelling 107 4.7 Existing gaps 108 4.8 Options and challenges for policy 111 4.9 Conceptual flowchart for the assessment of biodegradation of a plastic item in the open environment: three scenarios 4 CHAPTER : ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT 119 5.1 Introduction and Chapter outline 120 5.2 Risk assessment 123 5.3 Ecotoxicology 124 5.4 Plastics in the environment and related risks 129 5.5 Potential risks of biodegradable plastics in the environment 137 5.6 Risk assessment of biodegradable plastics, problem formulation (Phase 1) CHAPTER : SOCIAL, BEHAVIOURAL AND POLICY ASPECTS 149 6.1 Introduction 152 6.2 Public understanding, perceptions and behaviour 154 6.2.2 Consumer perceptions of sustainable and biodegradable packaging 160 6.3 Unintended consequences of biodegradable plastics 168 6.5 Evidence-based policy options and regulation 174 6.6 What is not known CHAPTER : CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY OPTIONS178 7.1. Conclusions 179 7.2. Evidence-based policy options • This Chapter is an introduction to the entire report, highlighting: › The rapid growth in the use of plastics in modern society › The scale of plastics pollution across all types of open environment › The challenge for waste management systems worldwide in dealing with plastics › Research and development into biodegradable plastics as a potential solution to the problem of plastics pollution in the open environment › The challenges of defining and testing for plastic biodegradability in the open environment • The Chapter sets out the overarching scoping question posed by the European Commission, which asks what the criteria and applications of biodegradable plastics are that are beneficial to the environment, ...