Molecular Biomarkers in Cancer

Abstract

Molecular cancer biomarkers are any measurable molecular indicator of risk of cancer, occurrence of cancer, or patient outcome. They may include germline or somatic genetic variants, epigenetic signatures, transcriptional changes, and proteomic signatures. These indicators are based on biomolecules, such as nucleic acids and proteins, that can be detected in samples obtained from tissues through tumor biopsy or, more easily and non-invasively, from blood (or serum or plasma), saliva, buccal swabs, stool, urine, etc. Detection technologies have advanced tremendously over the last decades, including techniques such as next-generation sequencing, nanotechnology, or methods to study circulating tumor DNA/RNA or exosomes. Clinical applications of biomarkers are extensive. They can be used as tools for cancer risk assessment, screening and early detection of cancer, accurate diagnosis, patient prognosis, prediction of response to therapy, and cancer surveillance and monitoring response. Therefore, they can help to optimize making decisions in clinical practice. Moreover, precision oncology is needed for newly developed targeted therapies, as they are functional only in patients with specific cancer genetic mutations, and biomarkers are the tools used for the identification of these subsets of patients. Improvement in the field of cancer biomarkers is, however, needed to overcome the scientific challenge of developing new biomarkers with greater sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value.

Recent Trends in Biosensing and Diagnostic Methods for Novel Cancer Biomarkers

“…Along with this, multiple pathways are interlinked with cancer cells and these cells express more than one biomarker. Therefore, simultaneous identification of different biomarkers for accurate prognosis and diagnosis is indispensable [ 8 , 42 , 48 , 138 , 139 , 140 , 141 , 142 , 143 ]. Biosensors offer great potential sensing methodology platforms for the detection of various cancer biomarkers.…”

“…These also exist on or in cancer cells. Cancer biomarkers are possibly one of the most potential tools to detect cancer early [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ].…”

Posttranscriptional Regulation of the Plasminogen Activation System by Non-Coding RNA in Cancer

“…The profiles of miRNA expression in serum EVs and in serum can be different and both are probably important as cancer biomarkers. Numerous miRs are potential predictive markers of drug response, response to immunotherapy, response to radiotherapy or represent diagnostic/prognostic markers in various cancers including lung, breast, prostate, colorectal, oral carcinomas, lymphomas and leukemias [ 33 ].…”

“…Some ncRNAs targeting PAS components are included in the list of ncRNAs proposed as plasma/EV biomarkers in various cancers [ 33 ]. Indeed, uPA-targeting miR-23b-3p, miR-138-5p and miR-193a are potential prognostic/diagnostic markers in hepatocellular, breast and colorectal carcinomas, respectively [ 78 , 79 , 80 ].…”

C. elegans as a Powerful Tool for Cancer Screening

“…Protein tumor markers in the blood, such as carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), cancer antigen 15-3 (CA15-3), and cancer antigen 19-9 (CA19-9), among others, are routinely used as prognosis biomarkers or cancer surveillance and monitoring response [ 12 ]. However, CEA, CA15-3, and CA19-9 have low sensitivity from aggregated results on multiple cancers and all stages considered, at 33.3%, 10.0%, and 11.8% sensitivity, respectively [ 13 ].…”