Modulatory Effect of Motivation on the Association of Trait Anxiety and Cognitive Performance: A Pupillometric Study

Abstract

The attentional control theory (ACT) proposes that trait anxiety disrupts functional efficiency of executive control of attention relating to working memory system such as shifting. ACT also emphasizes the modulatory role of motivation in anxiety on cognitive task performance. The present study investigated the association of trait anxiety-related inefficiencies in attentional shift and working memory performance in conjunction with the level of motivation. A variation of complex span paradigm is designed to systematically manipulate the time constraint on shifting attentional focus back and forth between working memory contents and processing task was used in this study. In the experiment, participants high and low in trait anxiety were allocated either high or low motivation induction conditions, and performed a series of complex span tasks. They also completed a state anxiety measure before and after the experimental task. Motivational states were assessed by the pupil dilation, which is known to reflect the amount of cognitive effort invested on the task at hand. Results showed that, only in low motivation condition, high trait-anxious individuals exhibited greater difficulty, relative to those low in trait anxiety, in maintaining working memory contents as the task demand increased. State anxiety showed no relation to working memory performance regardless of the level of motivation and task demands. Pupillary responses revealed that, in high motivational state, high trait-anxious individuals invested more effort than those low in trait anxiety when the task demand was low, F(1, 132) = 6.65, p = 0.0110, to moderate, F(1, 132) = 8.441, p = 0.00043. In accordance with ACT, these findings suggest that motivation can modulate the association between trait anxiety and cognitive performance along with the levels of task demand. Clinical implication is briefly discussed.

The Role of Motivation and Anxiety on Error Awareness in Younger and Older Adults

“…Finally, as a third exploratory aim, we also wanted to investigate if anxiety would be related to the potential effect that the motivational manipulation employed in the present study might have had on EA. Actually, some recent studies suggest that motivation is an important variable in explaining the relation between trait anxiety and cognitive performance, because high trait-anxious individuals would be more apprehensive about their performance (33), and therefore more motivated to invest further cognitive effort when performing a task (22,34). Our last prediction was therefore to find a positive association between trait anxiety and the potential beneficial effect of motivation on EA.…”

“…For what concerns the relation between anxiety and cognitive performance, as recently summarized by Hoshino and Tanno (22), several studies demonstrate that trait anxiety can influence various cognitive processes, from early perceptual detection stages to higher-order processes, such as cognitive control. More specifically, according to both the Attentional Control Theory (ACT) by Eysenk et al [ (23); see also (24)] and the Dual Mechanisms of Control framework (DMC) (25,26), elevated levels of trait anxiety decrease the functional efficiency of executive control, and more specifically of the proactive control mode (25,26).…”