“…Such changes can alter secondary and tertiary protein structures, leading to functional changes and resulting in molecular and cellular dysfunction (1,22,23). Studies have implicated carbamylation in changes in protein charge (24), conformation (25,26), stability (27), enzyme and hormone activity (28)(29)(30)(31)(32), binding properties (33)(34)(35), receptor-drug interaction (36,37), and cellular expression and responses (38)(39)(40)(41)(42)(43). For example, carbamylated collagen and LDLs accelerate the biochemical events of atherosclerosis (21,44,45), and carbamylated erythropoietin loses its activity (8,46,47).…”