Modifiable Risk Factors of Non-Syndromic Orofacial Clefts: A Systematic Review

Abstract

OFCs (orofacial clefts) are among the most frequent congenital defects, but their etiology has yet to be clarified. OFCs affect different structures and functions with social, psychological and economic implications in children and their families. Identifying modifiable risk factors is mandatory to prevent the occurrence of non-syndromic OFCs (NSOFCs). PubMed, Cochrane Library, Scopus and Web of Science were searched from 1 January 2012 to 25 May 2022 and a total of 7668 publications were identified. Studies focusing on the risk factors of NSOFCs were selected, leading to 62 case-control and randomized clinical trials. Risk factors were categorized into non-modifiable and modifiable. The first group includes genetic polymorphisms, gender of the newborn, ethnicity, and familiarity. Within the second group, risk factors that can only be modified before conception (consanguinity, parental age at conception, socio-economical and educational level, area of residency and climate), and risk factors modifiable before and after conception (weight, nutritional state, acute and chronic diseases, psychophysical stress, licit and illicit drugs, alcohol, smoke, pollutants and contaminants) have been distinguished. This study provides a wide overview of the risk factors of NSOFCs, focusing on modifiable ones, to suggest new perspectives in education, prevention, medical interventions and clinical research.

White Spots: Prevention in Orthodontics—Systematic Review of the Literature

“…In a clinical study published in 2019 by Jurela et al, 83 patients with a medium age of 15.14 ± 1.66 (52 men and 31 women) receiving FOT were examined [ 22 ]. The study’s goal was to estimate the patients’ clinical and salivary changes and see whether there were statistically meaningful variations concerning the type of braces they wore (conventional vs. self-ligating brackets) [ 21 , 38 ].…”

The interaction between gut microbiome and bone health

“…The study proposes a paradigm shift in therapeutic strategies for degenerative and infectious diseases, including COVID-19, by understanding the negative impact of dysbiosis, coupled with insights into immune system dynamics and endocrine balance. The association between genetic variants of interleukin-10 and other key immune-related genes holds promise for risk assessment in systemic diseases linked to chronic dysbiosis [74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81]82…”

Patterns of primary and secondary defects associated with non‐syndromic cleft lip and palate: An epidemiological analysis in a Kenyan population

“…The etiology of primary CLP is believed to be multifactorial, involving a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Specific genes and growth factors like TGF‐β3, MSX1, and FGFs have been linked to CLP development, while environmental factors like maternal alcohol use, smoking, anticonvulsant drug use, and malnutrition increase the risk of such defects 5,6 . CLP affects both appearance and function, leading to psychological distress, and difficulties in feeding, speech, and hearing.…”

“…Specific genes and growth factors like TGF-β3, MSX1, and FGFs have been linked to CLP development, while environmental factors like maternal alcohol use, smoking, anticonvulsant drug use, and malnutrition increase the risk of such defects. 5,6 CLP affects both appearance and function, leading to psychological distress, and difficulties in feeding, speech, and hearing. Treatment involves a comprehensive, lifelong, multidisciplinary approach addressing functional, aesthetic, and psychological aspects to improve the well-being of individuals with CLP.…”