Modifiable and Nonmodifiable Factors Associated with Osteoporosis in Postmenopausal Women: Results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994

Abstract

We wished to study the relationship between modifiable and nonmodifiable factors that were correlated with osteoporosis using a national sample of women aged 50 years and older who have never been on hormone replacement therapy (HRT). We used a cross-sectional study design with a nationally representative sample with a detailed clinical examination and a home interview. Between 1988 and 1994, 1953 postmenopausal women who had never been on HRT, aged 50 years and older, were examined as part of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic blacks were oversampled to produce reliable estimates for these groups. Bone density measurements of four proximal femur sites were assessed by using x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). A DEXA measurement at any single femur site indicated osteoporosis if it was >2.5 standard deviations (SD) below the reference mean of 20--29-year-old women. The study demonstrated that numerous factors, both modifiable and nonmodifiable, were significantly related to the prevalence of osteoporosis. The modifiable factors identified were participation in physical activity (three to five times per week) and body mass index (BMI). Nonmodifiable factors included age, race, and mother's history. With the aging population, osteoporosis is a growing concern for the medical community. It is suggested that educational strategies are needed to increase awareness of factors that contribute to maintaining bone health among postmenopausal women. Emphasis may be placed on maintaining regular physical activity.

The knowledge of osteoporosis risk factors and preventive practices among women of reproductive age in the state of Qatar: a cross-sectional survey

“…15 Thus, insufficient knowledge regarding osteoporosis makes women assume that the symptoms were simply a part of the normal aging process. In all cited cases, the obtained scores indicated that knowledge about osteoporosis is poor or limited among surveyed subjects so health educational programs and health services regarding osteoporosis are necessary for women living in Qatar.…”

Prevalence of Osteoporosis in Relation to Serum Calcium and Phosphorus in Aging Women

“…As the prevalence of osteoporosis and associated fractures differ from country to country, a lot of factors except menopause may be liable for the conflicting incidence. For primary postmenopausal osteoporosis, the non-modifiable risk factors are female sex, hormonal changes, family history of osteoporosis, early menopause and older age while amendable factors include low calcium intake, alcohol, modest physical activity, smoking and lower body weight (Snelling et al, 2001). Nutrition is vital for bone health.…”

Estimation of the lifetime risk of hip fracture for women and men in Canada

“…For example, vitamin D and bisphosphonates have been shown to reduce fractures and falls [6][7][8], and funding drugs to seniors may be more cost-effective than spending future health care dollars on fracture care and institutionalization [9].…”