Models of Neuromodulation

Informing deep neural networks by multiscale principles of neuromodulatory systems

“…Noradrenergic neurons originate in the locus coeruleus (LC). The LC has been implicated in exploration-exploitation trade-offs [61]. Mathematically:…”

“…Recent studies on anatomically segregated and functionally distinct 5-HT pathways have revealed an unexpected yet sophisticated role for 5-HT in governing behavior [58,59]. For example, in a process known as temporal discounting, where the subjective value of a reward decreases in magnitude when the given reward is delayed [22,60,61], 5-HT regulates impulsivity in decision making and controls the processing of rewards that occur at different times. In rodents with inhibited 5-HT activity, waiting for long-delayed rewards was impaired, while waiting for short-delayed rewards was unchanged, suggesting that the activation of serotonergic neurons in midbrain structures, such as the dorsal raphe, is necessary for waiting for long-delayed rewards [62].…”