Modeling population heterogeneity in appearance- and performance-enhancing drug (APED) use: Applications of mixture modeling in 400 regular APED users.

Abstract

Appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs (APEDs) constitute a wide range of substances, including anabolic-androgenic steroids, nonsteroidal anabolics, and licit and illicit ergo/thermogenics. A great deal of heterogeneity exists in APED use patterns among weight-lifting men, and, consequently, little is known about how these patterns are related to side effect profiles or risk potential. In the current study, a sample of 400 adult men who were regular APED users completed an interactive Web-based instrument detailing information about APED use, side effects, and related indicators of risk. To explore the heterogeneity of APED use patterns, the authors subjected data on use patterns to (a) latent class analysis (LCA), (b) latent trait analysis (LTA), and (c) factor mixture analysis to determine the best model of APED use. Results indicated that a 4-class factor mixture model provided a better fit than LCA and LTA models. The authors also found that severity and latent class were uniquely associated with negative outcomes. Each of the 4 classes was associated with unique side effects, motivations, and participant use patterns. Implications for identifying pathological forms of APED use are discussed.

The influence of age of onset and acute anabolic steroid exposure on cognitive performance, impulsivity, and aggression in men.

“…The latter finding is intuitive because experienced users engage in complex patterns of drug administration (Hildebrandt et al, 2007; Monaghan, 2002), which requires an intact ability to plan and control use. In contrast, adolescent onset users plan less frequently and avoid more complex decision making, independent of cycle status.…”

“…Due to the small sample, even the robust effects should be interpreted with caution because of the reduced participant variability in population typically considered to be largely heterogeneous (Hildebrandt, Alfano, & Langenbucher, 2010; Hildebrandt et al, 2007). Furthermore, the between-subjects design does not allow us to quantify if the magnitude of individual cycle effects, which will be a necessary next step in this research.…”

Women and Anabolic Steroids: An Analysis of a Dozen Users

“…Parameters assessed included (1) demographic data, (2) exercise patterns, (3) AAS utilization and dosing history, (4) utilization of non-AAS agents, (5) reasons for AAS use, (6) determination of behavior consistent with DSM-IV-TR criteria for substance dependence disorder (SDD), (7) DSM-IV-TR psychiatric conditions diagnosed by a health care professional, and (8) history of sexual or physical abuse.…”

“…Abuse of AAS by strengthtrained men has been widely reported in the lay press and has been documented by academic researchers worldwide over the past 2 decades. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] However, AAS use is not limited to men. In fact, recent national surveys estimate a 0.1% to 5.3% usage rate for adolescent girls in the United States.…”

Understanding the Paths to Appearance- and Performance-Enhancing Drug Use in Bodybuilding

“…Researchers have observed the prevalence of doping in sports, and many of them have focused on risk factors for anabolic steroid use amongst bodybuilders (Blouin and Goldfield, 1995; Hildebrandt et al, 2007; Ntoumanis et al, 2014). These authors show that doping intentions and doping use are significantly related to dissatisfaction with body appearance.…”