“…Granular materials are frequently encountered in geotechnical engineering, and their mechanical behavior is important for the safety of geo-structures (Chen et al, 2011;Tang et al, 2017;Zhu et al, 2019;Hu et al, 2020;Liu et al, 2022). Geotechnical hazards are triggered by the deformation localization of granular materials, such as landslides , foundation failure (Gao et al, 2013), and ground collapse induced by tunnelling (Lin et al, 2021;Du et al, 2019). Extensive researches have thus been carried out to develop methods that can capture the deformation localization in granular materials through laboratory tests and numerical simulations (Chevalier et al, 2019;Xu et al, 2019;Ma et al, 2019;Guo et al, 2014).…”