Modalities of the psychedelic experience: Microclimates of set and setting in hallucinogen research and culture

Abstract

Mid-20th-century American research on psychedelics evinced a stunning diversity of interpretations of hallucinogenic effects. While some researchers viewed psychedelics as invaluable tools for psychotherapy, others persisted in treating them as psychosis-inducing agents. As some groups considered psychedelics as catalysts for artistic creativity, others investigated their potential use as psychochemical weapons in the battlefield, or conversely as tools for spiritual ecstasy and revelation. This bewildering array of perceptions regarding the nature of hallucinogenic effects led to stark contrasts in the contexts (set and setting) of psychedelic research and experimentation, leading to wildly divergent outcomes and reports on the effects of the drugs, and strident disagreements between the actors in the field. Examining this remarkable historical moment of epistemological unclarity regarding psychedelics and their effects, this article describes how distinct scientific and cultural trends and moments of mid-20th-century America contributed to the creation of diverse microclimates of set and setting that reproduced investigator beliefs and attitudes and brought about a beguiling Pygmalion effect that left researchers befuddled and perplexed. I propose the concept of psychedelic modality to describe how distinct sociocultural microclimates lead to thematic aggregates in which distinct types of expectations, intentions as well as physical, social, and cultural environments all tend to cluster, producing characteristic outcomes and results. By exploring the historical context and consequences of the emergence of seven psychedelic modalities (psychotomimetic, military, psychotherapeutic, spiritual, artistic-creative, tech-innovative, and political) in mid-20th-century America, this article outlines the varieties of psychedelic experiences in their relationship with culture at large, and subcultures in particular.

Culture, context, and ethics in the therapeutic use of hallucinogens: Psychedelics as active super-placebos?

“…In contrast to neuro-reductionist approaches, several contributors to this special issue raise questions about potential placebo, non-specific, or extra-pharmacological effects of psychedelic therapies. Hartogsohn (2022), for example, presents a history of psychedelic use in which he proposes the notion of sociocultural microclimates to describe the distinct types of expectations, intentions, and cultural contexts that have produced drastically different psychedelic experiences in different times and settings. Wong and Raz (2022; see also Kaypak & Raz, 2022), in their review of the current craze for micro-dosing, find no evidence of efficacy beyond placebo and expectancy effects for the wide array of self-improvement indices reported by an ever-growing number of enthusiasts of the practice.…”

“…While set and setting have long been recognized as important modulators of psychedelic experiences (Gukasyan & Nayak, 2022; Hartogsohn, 2022; Leary et al, 1963), the role of placebo effects has gained increased attention in clinical studies. In a recent experiment designed and supervised by one of us (SV), 33 undergraduate participants consumed a placebo pill that we described as a drug resembling psilocybin (Olson et al, 2020).…”

“…In the Global North, popular assumptions and discourse about psychedelics have also undergone a series of dramatic shifts since the 1960s. After initial hopes of freedom and flourishing stemming from the "free love" movement of the 1960s, psychedelics in the late Cold War era became increasingly associated with CIA experiments, fears of "mind-control," and a prohibitive public health discourse that emphasized the risks of adverse mental health consequences (Hartogsohn, 2022). Much of the scientific debate on psychedelics at the time focused on the extent to which these substances emulated or actually caused psychosis (Friesen, 2022).…”

The Bright Side of Psychedelics: Latest Advances and Challenges in Neuropharmacology

“…Since the 1960s, the use of plant derivatives based on psychedelic molecules has also spread to Western countries [ 12 , 13 ]. Based on the chronicles of those years, artists and intellectuals were fascinated by psychedelic molecules that allowed them to “think outside the box”, and, therefore, increase their creativity [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. In the following years, governments imposed strict bans on the use of psychedelics, considering them to be narcotics [ 19 ].…”

Navigating intensive altered states of consciousness: How can the set and setting key parameters promote the science of human birth?

“…On the face of it, this looks like an enigma: how can the same substance in the case of psychedelics, or the same physiological process in the case of childbirth, produce such extreme and opposing experiences, with such extreme and opposing consequences? For psychedelic experiences, the enigma has been solved through the theory of set and setting parameters that predict and explain how the set and setting surrounding the experience have the power to influence and design the opposing psychedelic experiences (17,20,(25)(26)(27)(28)(29). However, this phenomenon is still an enigma concerning childbirth [see also (10)].…”