(Mixed) Racial formation in Aotearoa/New Zealand: framing biculturalism and ‘mixed race’ through categorisation

Abstract

This paper explores racial formation in Aotearoa/New Zealand, and the impacts of state categorisation on understandings of 'mixed race'. Processes of racial formation have undergone significant shifts over time, from initial colonial understandings of racialised domination and hierarchy, to present-day narratives of a multicultural society within a bicultural national framework. Connecting these narratives is a constant thread of racial differentiation, framing inter-group relations within society and underpinning contemporary state and social understandings of (mixed) race. Although New Zealand maintains an innovative method of measuring ethnic (self) identification, this fluid categorisation is constrained by existing classification structures and dominant racial narratives. 'Mixed race' identity is thus firmly positioned within the bicultural/multicultural tension, which characterises 'race relations' in New Zealand. Mixed identities for the individual can be seen as reflecting the 'mixed' nature of the state and society, with the narrative of a bicultural nation providing a macro level depiction of personal mixedness.

Positionality, subjectivity, and race in transnational and transcultural geographical research

“…Race and racialized hierarchies defined Europeans in opposition to Māori; however, as opposed to nonwhite immigrants, Māori were seen to be biologically close to Europeans (Bennett 2001;Rocha 2012). In contrast to other colonies, miscegenation was not prohibited in New Zealand.…”

“…In contrast to other colonies, miscegenation was not prohibited in New Zealand. This led to historically high levels of intermarriage, which was seen as a means by which to appropriate land as well as to facilitate social and biological assimilation (Rocha 2012). In particular, marriage between a Māori woman and a Pākehā man provided a means by which to socialize Māori women into behaving according to European expectations and British common law (Mikaere 1994).…”

“…Despite geographical distance, economic and cultural attachments, including settler identification to Britain, remained strong (Smith 1999). Efforts to establish a settler society centered on creating a 'white' Aotearoa New Zealand, with policies promoting British and European migration complemented by policies of assimilation (Rocha 2012). West-Newman (2004, 28) alleges attempts by the state to govern a monocultural New Zealand rested on a 'tradition of racist beliefs in the superiority of 'whiteness' and European culture.'…”

“…Half-castes were viewed as 'in-between' Māori and Pākehā (Webber 2008) with 'neither group viewing mixed children positively' (Rocha 2012, 5). From the perspective of the colonizer, the half-caste disrupted attempts to construct an imagined 'white New Zealand' settler society (Rocha 2012). From the perspective of Māori, the half-caste was a reminder of the colonization of their land, people, and way of being.…”

In search of a decolonised military: Māori cultural learning experiences in the New Zealand Defence Force

“…Krarup referred to Māori people, their traditions and hospitality in a negative and demeaning manner describing the NZDF cultural training as 'cultural self-annihilation' or 'grotesque' multiculturalism. Commenting that Māori protocols and traditions are the 'opposite' of civilised, Krarup's criticisms not only offended her hosts, but resulted in the resurfacing of negative memories and stereotypical racist comments made to and about Māori people and their knowledge systems in the past (see also Larner & Spoonley 1995;Rocha 2012). Recent political debate within the New Zealand parliament about whether Māori should be legislated for as a cultural or racial group has added yet another layer of complexity to the issue (Gershon 2008).…”