Mitochondria as novel mediators linking gut microbiota to atherosclerosis that is ameliorated by herbal medicine: A review

Abstract

Atherosclerosis (AS) is the main cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and is characterized by endothelial damage, lipid deposition, and chronic inflammation. Gut microbiota plays an important role in the occurrence and development of AS by regulating host metabolism and immunity. As human mitochondria evolved from primordial bacteria have homologous characteristics, they are attacked by microbial pathogens as target organelles, thus contributing to energy metabolism disorders, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Therefore, mitochondria may be a key mediator of intestinal microbiota disorders and AS aggravation. Microbial metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids, trimethylamine, hydrogen sulfide, and bile acids, also affect mitochondrial function, including mtDNA mutation, oxidative stress, and mitophagy, promoting low-grade inflammation. This further damages cellular homeostasis and the balance of innate immunity, aggravating AS. Herbal medicines and their monomers can effectively ameliorate the intestinal flora and their metabolites, improve mitochondrial function, and inhibit atherosclerotic plaques. This review focuses on the interaction between gut microbiota and mitochondria in AS and explores a therapeutic strategy for restoring mitochondrial function and intestinal microbiota disorders using herbal medicines, aiming to provide new insights for the prevention and treatment of AS.

Butanol Extract of Acanthopanax senticosus (Rupr. et Maxim.) Harms Alleviates Atherosclerosis in Apolipoprotein E‐Deficient Mice Fed a High‐Fat Diet

“…[50] Furthermore, an imbalance in gut microbiota and inflammatory responses stimulate the immune response of the body and participate in the process of atherosclerosis. [51] Emoto et al [52] showed that the F/B ratio is directly proportional to body weight. In addition, increased lipid absorption from food is linked to increased firmicute abundance, which can lead to obesity.…”

“…Current research has revealed that the gut microbiota regulates the secretion of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, generation of immune cell inflammatory factors, and the inflammatory state by affecting the NF‐κB pathway [50] . Furthermore, an imbalance in gut microbiota and inflammatory responses stimulate the immune response of the body and participate in the process of atherosclerosis [51] . Emoto et al [52] .…”

The clinical efficacy of Olibanum gum chewing in patients with Mild‐to‐Moderate Alzheimer disease: A randomized Parallel‐Design controlled trial

“…6 According to some evidence obtained by animal studies, Olibanum and its constituent, boswellic acid have obvious positive effects on neuroinflammation diseases and they could be useful in improving a variety of models of cognitive dysfunction and memory impairment caused by hypothyroidism, diabetes, seizure, and stroke. 7 Olibanum is traditionally used in Iran for pregnant women during the first trimester to enhance the learning ability of the child. 34 To the best of our knowledge, this is the first clinical trial that investigated the effect of Olibanum on memory function.…”

“…Olibanum inhibits inflammation in many inflammatory diseases by specifically inhibiting 5‐lipooxygenase enzyme, preventing leukotriene synthesis and stopping glycosaminoglycan production 6 . According to some evidence obtained by animal studies, Olibanum and its constituent, boswellic acid have obvious positive effects on neuroinflammation diseases and they could be useful in improving a variety of models of cognitive dysfunction and memory impairment caused by hypothyroidism, diabetes, seizure, and stroke 7 . Olibanum is traditionally used in Iran for pregnant women during the first trimester to enhance the learning ability of the child 34…”

“…4 Recent studies reported that herbal compounds may have a beneficial effect on improvement of inflammatory diseases such as osteoarthritis, 5 psychological disorders, 6 and inflammatory bowel disease. 7 Several studies have also demonstrated the effectiveness of herbal medicines in memory-related disorders. 3,8 Effectiveness of saffron extract and crocin have been reported on recognition and spatial memory after chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in rats.…”