Mitigation of diffuse water pollution from agriculture in England and China, and the scope for policy transfer

Abstract

This paper evaluates the existing policy frameworks for mitigation of diffuse water pollution from agriculture (DWPA) in England and China. With reference to a conceptual model of the process of policy transfer or international lesson drawing, and possible constraints to this, it assesses whether and how China can draw lessons to improve current policy from the supra-national and national provisions of the EU and a member state that by 2016 had comprehensively implemented EU agricultural and environmental policy. DWPA is first analysed as a public policy challenge to inform specification of a generic framework for its mitigation. The current policy frameworks for mitigation of DWPA in England and China are evaluated, and their potential for improvement is assessed. A number of barriers to lesson drawing for regulation, incentive payments schemes and advice provision are diagnosed. These barriers are potentially least in relation to advice provision and its use to promote voluntary action by farmers. Given its structure and capabilities the public agricultural extension system in China is also recognised as a key resource. A focus on three policy approaches to mitigate DWPA in China is recommended: i) targeted regulation to a 'reference level' of large intensive livestock, and ultimately other large commercial farms; ii) strategic use of incentive payment schemes to protect water resources from DWPA; and iii) reorientation of the ethos and modalities of operation of the extension system, informed by international lesson drawing, with the aim of rebalancing farm productivity and environmental protection.

An Assessment of Intermediary Roles in Payments for Ecosystem Services Schemes in the Context of Catchment Management: An Example from South West England

“…A combination of approaches well adapted to local conditions is needed to costeffectively mitigate rural diffuse water pollution (Smith et al, 2017). This includes 'baseline' regulation, advisory and education campaigns, economic incentives based on voluntary agreements and for exceptional cases direct land management strategies based on acquisition or prescribed change or restriction of use.…”

“…For such ICM objectives, payments offered in England by the 'Mid-Tier' of the Countryside Stewardship (CS) scheme 4 (funded under the rural development policy of the CAP) can incentivise measures to reduce water pollution through farmer selection of relevant management options and items eligible for capital grants. 5 However, the scope of measures and targeting for ICM are poorly developed to date (Smith et al, 2017). First, because CS scheme regional priority statements 6 inadequately prioritise water quality protection as compared to landscape heritage and biodiversity conservation (Defra and The Rivers Trust, 2012).…”

“…4 Known as 'Environmental Stewardship' prior to January 2016. 5 Although 'water quality grants' are only available in specified priority catchments (Smith et al, 2017). 6 As set out in regional statements of priorities (Gov.UK, 2016).…”

“…6 As set out in regional statements of priorities (Gov.UK, 2016). pollution mitigation measures sufficient to offset the income foregone, particularly for partial or full land parcel retirement 7 (Smith et al, 2017). Thus, subject to demand for ecosystem services (ES) and ability to pay, there is potential for greater use of PES for mitigation of rural diffuse water pollution and other ICM objectives.…”

“…PES thus develops mechanisms to capture environmental externalities and develop marketbased transactions to account for them. Such a voluntary 'provider is paid' mechanism can be complementary to, and synergistic with, 'polluter pays' (regulatory) and 'producer saves, (advice driven and voluntary) mechanisms (Smith et al, 2017). For example, effective 'baseline' regulation facilitates identification of the 'additionality' of environmental improvement beyond expected 'good farming practice' that may merit PES payments, whilst advice provision can facilitate compliance with regulation and adoption of voluntary and incentivised measures.…”